WO2019070665A1

WO2019070665A1 - Deposition patterns in reactant fabrication

Info

Publication number: WO2019070665A1
Application number: PCT/US2018/053909
Authority: WO
Inventors: Joseph A. Murray; Julie A. Morris; Tushar Tank
Original assignee: Ih Ip Holdings Limited
Priority date: 2017-10-04
Filing date: 2018-10-02
Publication date: 2019-04-11

Abstract

The presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of producing devices for use in energy generation (e.g., metallic electrodes for use in a reaction cell). Particularly, the disclosed method employs one or more masking techniques used during vapor deposition to create a specific desired substrate material geometry. The careful regulation of process parameters such as temperature, overall pressure, introduction of specific partial pressures, substrate, and the like allows the growth of specific films of pure metals and alloys. The produced devices (e.g., metallic coated electrodes) can be utilized in a reaction cell to generate an exothermic reaction. The specific geometry of the deposited material is key to the efficiency of the exothermic reaction.

Description

DEPOSITION PATTERNS IN REACTANT FABRICATION

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/567,931 , filed October 4, 2017, the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure describes masking techniques used during vapor deposition for creating specific geometries of materials in the construction of reactant devices utilized in exothermic reactions. Particularly, the disclosed method can be used for the production of a cathode and/or anode for an exothermic reaction. The geometry of the deposited material is key to the efficiency of the exothermic reactions.

BACKGROUND

Significant research in the generation of excess heat with hydrogen-absorbing materials has focused on electrolysis and gas-based experiments that require an electrolytic cell. Particularly, electrolytic cells include a first electrode constructed from a transition metal (such as palladium or nickel), a second electrode constructed from an inert metal (such as gold or platinum), a working fluid (such as heavy water or deuterium gas), and an electrolyte (such as lithium deuteroxide). Prior art methods of fabricating metal electrodes include chemical vapor deposition formation. Vapor deposition is a process by which a target material is vaporized and deposited as a thin film onto a substrate. However, metallic electrodes produced according to prior art methods lack consistency with regard to the metallic structure produced. Further, conventional production of such electrodes is not easily scalable and does not allow for precise control of the final electrode material. It would therefore be beneficial to provide a method of constructing metallic electrodes that overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art, in an effort to increase the reproducibility and efficiency of a variety of exothermic reactions.

SUMMARY

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of forming a vapor-deposited film on a substrate. Particularly, the method comprises positioning a vapor deposition mask adjacent to a surface of a substrate, wherein the vapor deposition mask comprises a base and at least one aperture. The method further comprises depositing a first deposition material on the vapor deposition mask, whereby at least a portion of the first deposition material that overlays the at least one aperture is deposited onto the surface of the substrate. The method comprises repeating the depositing step with a desired number of subsequent deposition materials. The mask is then removed to produce a substrate with a vapor deposited surface having a specific geometry comprising layers of the first deposition material and the subsequent deposition materials.

In some embodiments, the first and subsequent deposition materials comprise one or more metals, alloys, isotopes, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the first and subsequent deposition materials are selected from one or more of ₄6Pd, ¹⁰²Pd, ¹⁰⁴Pd, ¹⁰⁵Pd, ¹⁰⁶Pd, ¹⁰⁸Pd, ¹¹⁰Pd, ₂₈Ni, ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, ⁶¹ Ni, ⁶²Ni, or ⁶⁴Ni.

In some embodiments, the vapor deposition mask is positioned directly adjacent to the substrate surface.

In some embodiments, an initial deposition material is deposited on the substrate prior to positioning the vapor deposition mask adjacent to a surface of the substrate.

In some embodiments, the mask is held statically in an XY direction over the substrate during each deposition to create a columnar structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the substrate surface. In some embodiments, the one or more layers of the columnar structure comprise one or more different deposition materials.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises depositing a coating material on the vapor deposited surface of the substrate after the mask has been removed. In some embodiments, the mask can be moved over the surface of the substrate in the XY and Z directions during the depositing steps to produce an inter-layered structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the substrate surface.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a substrate formed by the disclosed method. The substrate can be configured as a hydrogen-absorbing metallic electrode.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of forming an electrode (such as a hydrogen-absorbing electrode), the method comprising positioning a vapor deposition mask adjacent to a surface of an electrode substrate, wherein the vapor deposition mask comprises a base and at least one aperture. The method includes depositing a first deposition material on the vapor deposition mask, whereby at least a portion of the first deposition material that overlays the at least one aperture is deposited onto the surface of the electrode substrate. The method comprises repeating the depositing step with a desired number of subsequent deposition materials, and removing the mask to produce an electrode with a vapor deposited surface having a specific geometry comprising layers of the first deposition material and the subsequent deposition materials.

In some embodiments, the first and subsequent deposition materials comprise one or more metals, alloys, isotopes, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the first and subsequent deposition materials are selected from one or more of ₄₆Pd, ¹⁰²Pd, ¹⁰⁴Pd, ¹⁰⁵Pd, ¹⁰⁶Pd, ¹⁰⁸Pd, ¹¹⁰Pd, ₂₈Ni, ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, ⁶¹ Ni, ⁶²Ni, or ⁶⁴Ni.

In some embodiments, the mask is held statically in an XY direction over the electrode substrate during each deposition to create a columnar structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the substrate surface.

In some embodiments, one or more layers of the columnar structure comprise one or more different deposition materials.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises depositing a coating material on the vapor deposited surface of the electrode substrate after the mask has been removed. In some embodiments, the mask can be moved over the surface of the substrate in the XY and Z directions during the depositing steps to produce an inter-layered structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the electrode substrate surface.

In some embodiments, the presently disclosed subject matter is directed to the electrode formed by the disclosed method of claim. In some embodiments, the electrode can be configured as a hydrogen-absorbing metallic electrode.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The previous summary and the following detailed descriptions are to be read in view of the drawings, which illustrate some (but not all) embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 1 a is top plan view of a vapor deposition mask in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 1 b is a top plan view of the vapor deposition mask of Fig. 1 a comprising a support frame.

Fig. 2a is a top plan view of the mask of Fig. 1 and a corresponding substrate in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 2b is a side plan view of the mask and substrate of Fig. 2a.

Fig. 3a is a side plan view of a columnar, single material structure constructed on a substrate in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 3b is a side plan view of a columnar, multi-material structure constructed on a substrate in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 3c is a side plan view of a columnar, multi-material structure constructed on a substrate in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 3d is a side plan view of a columnar structure comprising a coating constructed on a substrate in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Fig. 4 is a side plan view of an inter-layered structure constructed on a substrate in accordance with some embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The presently disclosed subject matter is introduced with sufficient details to provide an understanding of one or more particular embodiments of broader inventive subject matters. The descriptions expound upon and exemplify features of those embodiments without limiting the inventive subject matters to the explicitly described embodiments and features. Considerations in view of these descriptions will likely give rise to additional and similar embodiments and features without departing from the scope of the presently disclosed subject matter.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which the presently disclosed subject matter pertains. Although any methods, devices, and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the presently disclosed subject matter, representative methods, devices, and materials are now described.

Following long-standing patent law convention, the terms "a", "an", and "the" refer to "one or more" when used in the subject specification, including the claims. Thus, for example, reference to "a substrate" can include a plurality of such substrates, and so forth.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term "about". Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the instant specification and attached claims are approximations that can vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the presently disclosed subject matter.

As used herein, the term "about", when referring to a value or to an amount of mass, weight, time, volume, concentration, and/or percentage can encompass variations of, in some embodiments +/-20%, in some embodiments +/-10%, in some embodiments +/-5%, in some embodiments +/-1 %, in some embodiments +/-0.5%, and in some embodiments +/-0.1 %, from the specified amount, as such variations are appropriate in the disclosed packages and methods.

The above description is intended to be illustrative and not limiting. Various changes and modifications in the embodiment described herein may occur to those skilled in the art. Those changes can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the presently disclosed subject matter.

The presently disclosed subject matter is directed to a method of producing devices for use in energy generation (e.g., electrodes for use in a reaction cell for exothermic reactions). Particularly, the disclosed method employs one or more masking techniques used during vapor deposition to create a specific desired substrate material geometry. The term "vapor deposition" refers to the process of forming or depositing one or more materials onto a substrate through the vapor phase. Typical vapor deposition processes include chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical vapor deposition (PVD). During CVD, a chemical process is used to produce a thin film or coating, such as exposure of the substrate to one or more precursors that react to produce the desired deposit. In PVD, a source material is vaporized (e.g., through the application of heat, plasma, electron beams, etc.) through physical action and is disposed on a substrate.

The careful regulation of process parameters such as temperature, overall pressure, introduction of specific partial pressures, substrate, and the like allows the growth of specific films of pure metals and alloys. Using a mask, complex geometries can be created for devices. The produced device can be utilized in a reaction cell to generate an exothermic reaction. The specific geometry of the deposited material is key to the efficiency of the exothermic reaction.

Fig. 1 a illustrates one embodiment of a stencil mask that can be used in accordance with the disclosed method. Particularly, mask 5 comprises body 7 that includes one or more apertures 10. The apertures are not limited and can be configured in any desired size or shape. For example, the apertures can be constructed in a square, rectangular, round, oval, triangular, trapezoidal, pentagonal, hexagonal, octagonal, abstract, etc. configuration. In some embodiments, each aperture 10 is of the same shape and/or size as at least one other aperture. However, the presently disclosed subject matter also includes embodiments wherein each aperture differs in size and/or shape from the remainder of the apertures. In some embodiments, the mask is patterned, as shown in Fig. 1 . However, the presently disclosed subject matter is not limited, and any patterned or non-patterned design can be used.

Mask 5 can be constructed from any rigid or semi-rigid material. The term "rigid" refers to a material that has a high stiffness or modulus of elasticity. Thus, a rigid material holds a shape without external support and has a high resistance to deformation by external forces. In some embodiments, a suitable rigid material has a modulus of elasticity of about 150,000 psi or greater, determined according to ASTM D- 790, incorporated by reference herein. The term "semi-rigid" refers to a material that holds a shape without external support, but exhibits higher flexibility when external forces are exerted thereon. In some embodiments, a suitable semi-rigid material can have a modulus of elasticity between about 20,000 - 150,000 psi, in accordance with ASTM D-790. Any desired rigid or semi-rigid material can be used, such as (but not limited to) metal, polymeric material, ceramics, glass, plexiglass, wood, rubber, and combinations thereof.

Optionally, mask 5 can include frame 6 or another support device to ensure that the mask is tensed during use, as shown in Fig. 1 b. Because the mask can be thinly formed and extensively patterned, the middle portion of the mask can sag or droop which can prevent an accurate vapor deposition (e.g., blurring can occur). Accordingly, coupling of the perimeter of the mask to frame 6 can ensure even deposition. Support frame 6 can be constructed from any desired material, such as wood, metal, and the like. The coupling can occur through conventional methods, such as the use of an adhesive, laser welding, and the like.

Mask 5 can have any desired thickness, such as about 0.004 mm to about 0.2 mm. Thus, the mask can have a thickness of at least about (or no more than about) 0.004, 0.005, 0.006, 0.007, 0.008, 0.009, 0.01 , 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.10, 0.11 , 0.12, 0.13, 0.14, 0.15, 0.16, 0.17, 0.18, 0.19, or 0.2 mm. However, the presently disclosed subject matter is not limited, and mask 5 can have a thickness greater than or less than the range given above.

Apertures 10 can be constructed using any known method. For example, in some embodiments a sharp cutting device can be used (e.g., knife, blade, scissors). Alternatively, one or more of laser cutting, water-jet cutting, thermal cutting, drilling, etching, and the like can be used. It should be appreciated that any desired number of apertures can be configured in mask 5.

Mask 5 can be customized (e.g., size, shape, material) for a particular device. Particularly, a metal stencil mask can be used for larger substrates, while a photoresist mask can be selected for smaller resolution features. Mask 5 can further be customized based on size. For example, masks of micro-scale and nano-scale can be created if desired by the user.

As shown in Figs. 2a and 2b, mask 5 is positioned over substrate 15 during at least a portion of the vapor deposition process, as shown in Figs. 2a and 2b. Any known vapor deposition process can be used, including (but not limited to) sputtering, reactive sputtering, evaporation deposition, atomic layer deposition, physical vapor deposition, and/or plasma spraying. In this way, one or more materials (e.g., metal) are deposited onto the substrate by passing through apertures 10, thereby creating a columnar structure. The body of the stencil covers the non-printed areas of the substrate. In some embodiments, the mask directly contacts substrate 10. The term "direct contact" refers to a spatial relationship between two materials wherein each of the identified materials is in physical contact with the other. However, the presently disclosed subject matter also includes embodiments wherein the mask indirectly contacts the substrate (e.g., contact though one or more intervening materials).

In some embodiments, the mask can be held in a fixed position throughout the entire deposition process (e.g., through the deposition of one, several, or all layers). As illustrated in Fig. 2a, mask 5 can be held statically in the XY direction (length and width) over substrate 10 using any element known or used in the art. For example, in some embodiments, mechanical elements can be used, such as clips, closures, and the like to ensure that the mask does not move along a width or length of the substrate.

As shown in Fig. 2a, in some embodiments, the substrate can be sized and/or shaped to be larger than mask 5. However, the presently disclosed subject matter also includes embodiments wherein the substrate is configured to be about the same size or smaller than mask 5.

Substrate 15 can be any base material or construction upon which a layer (e.g., a metal-containing layer) can be deposited. For example, substrate 15 can include one or more semiconductor substrates, films, molded articles, fibers, wires, glasses, ceramics, machined metal parts, and the like. The term "semiconductor substrate" refers to a semiconductor substrate such as a metal electrode (e.g., anode or cathode), base semiconductor layer, or a semiconductor substrate having one or more layers, structures, or regions formed thereon. For example, when configured as an electrode, substrate 15 can be constructed from a metal foil, a polymer (such as one or more polyimide, polyamide, polyetheretherketone, polyethersulfone, polyetherimide, polyethylene naphtalate, polyester, metallized plastic, and/or combinations thereof.

The substrate can include top surface 16 that can be planar as shown in Fig. 2b. However, top surface 16 is not limited, and can include one or more topographical features.

In the disclosed method, one or more materials are deposited through mask 5 onto substrate 15. In some embodiments, the materials can include one or more metals. The term "metal" refers to metals and/or alloys capable of vapor deposition, and can include one or more of aluminum, titanium, silicon, cobalt, niobium, chromium, platinum, palladium, gold, silver, cerium, nickel, copper, iron, indium, zinc, tantalum, tin, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium, molybdenum, and alloys and isotopes thereof. In some embodiments, the deposited materials can comprise palladium, nickel, and/or stable isotopes of palladium or nickel. For example, the deposited materials can include (but are not limited to) ₄₆Pd, ¹⁰²Pd, ¹⁰⁴Pd, ¹⁰⁵Pd, ¹⁰⁶Pd, ¹⁰⁸Pd, ¹¹⁰Pd, ₂₈Ni, ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, ⁶¹ Ni, ⁶²Ni, ⁶⁴Ni, or combinations thereof.

Thus, in use, mask 5 can be held statically in the XY direction over substrate 15. One or more materials can be deposited through the mask apertures creating a columnar structure with one or more layers. The term "columnar structure" refers to an elongated shape that results from successive deposition of layers onto the substrate surface (e.g., columns of materials are produced). The term "layer" refers to any metal- containing layer that can be formed on a substrate using a vapor deposition process. In some embodiments, the term "layer" refers to layers specific to the semiconductor industry, such as one or more barrier layers, dielectric layers, and/or conductive layers. The term can also include layers found in technology outside of semiconductor technology, such as coatings on glass and the like. Vapor deposition therefore offers a solution for building complex geometries and multi-layer structures for high-volume devices used in energy generation.

As illustrated in Fig. 3a, first material 20 can be deposited directly onto substrate 15, through mask apertures 10. It should be appreciated that one or more different materials can be deposited on the substrate. For example, as shown in Fig. 3b, second and third materials 25, 30 can be further deposited onto the substrate, creating a columnar, multi-material structure. Thus, first material 20 can be deposited directly onto substrate 10. Second material 25 can be deposited directly onto the first material, and third material 30 is deposited directly onto the second material, as shown. In some embodiments, materials 20, 25, and/or 30 can each comprise a different material. In some embodiments, one or more of materials 20, 25, and/or 30 can be the same.

The thickness of each material layer is not limited, and any desired thickness can be used. For example, in some embodiments, the thickness of the material layers can range from about 10 nm to about 50 nm. Thus, the thickness of materials 20, 25, and/or 30 can be at least about (or no more than about) 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 nm. However, the presently disclosed subject matter is not limited, and material thicknesses greater or less than the range set forth above can be used. The thickness of each material deposited as the deposition layers in Fig. 3b can be about the same, or can differ as desired by the user.

As illustrated in Fig. 3c, in some embodiments, first material 20 can be deposited on substrate 15 to create a base coating prior to positioning of the mask. The mask can then be used to deposit second, third, and fourth materials, 25, 30, and 35 upon the base.

In some embodiments, one or more coating materials 40 can be deposited over a particular deposition structure after mask 5 has been removed, as illustrated in Fig. 3d. For example, first material 20 (e.g., a hydrogen-absorbing metal such as palladium) can be deposited first in the presence of a hydrogen isotope, and coating material 40 (e.g., a hydrogen barrier material such as gold) can then be layered on top of the structure (e.g., to prevent the desorption of the hydrogen isotope in the first material). It should be appreciated that "hydrogen-absorbing" as used herein can further refer to the characteristic of absorbing hydrogen and/or deuterium.

In some embodiments, mask 5 can be moved over the substrate in the XY direction and/or the Z direction during the deposition process to create an inter-layered structure, as shown in Fig. 4. Alternatively, a plurality of masks can be used to create the inter-layered structure. In this way, layers with variable thicknesses can be created to provide a degree of surface roughness and/or an increase in surface area. Surface roughness is necessary for increasing both reactivity and efficiency in certain reactors. For example, the disclosed structure can be suitable for use with platinum group metals and/or nickel. Particularly, a stable isotope or combination of stable isotopes of such metals can be used. The "XY" direction refers to the horizontal direction (such as the length and width of the substrate). "Z direction" refers to the direction of fabrication (e.g., the direction in which layer are deposited on top of each other).

When a dynamic process is used, the thickness (or height) of the deposited material depends on the time the mask remains at a given position, shown by the equation below, where t(x) is the dwell time of the mask and is the longitudinal position of the mask.

As illustrated in Fig. 4, in some embodiments, a complex inter-layered structure of different materials 50, 55 can be constructed using multiple static masks and/or a single dynamic mask. Such layered structures can be necessary for certain reactors, as the interface between materials can provide active reaction sites. Thus, by increasing the overall area of interfaces, the efficiency can be altered as desired by the user. By carefully selecting which materials are in contact, ideal interfaces can therefore be maximized. For example, a layer of palladium-nickel material can be deposited to generate excess heat under certain conditions. Thus, by alternating the palladium and nickel deposited in the interlayer structure, the overall interfacial area can be increased when compared to simply layering successive materials in the same pattern.

The produced device can have a wide variety of uses, such as (but not limited to) as a metallic electrodes for use in exothermic reactions. The term "electrode" refers to an electrical conduction where ions and electrodes are exchanged with electrolyte and an outer circuit. The term "exothermic reaction" refers to a reaction that generates heat. Particularly, an anode or cathode for use in an exothermic reaction can be produced. The term "anode" refers to an electrode where electrochemical oxidation occurs. The term "cathode" refers to an electrode where electrochemical reduction occurs. Typically, current enters the electrolytic cell through the anode and exits through the cathode.

The produced substrates offer several advantages over prior art substrates. For example, the increase in surface area provided by a complex structure as opposed to prior art flat, thin films allows for greater reactivity.

Mask lithography therefore provides an advantage for manufacturability as the mask may be reused and the material created does not require subsequent processing. Using deposition processes to prepare the devices further allows for better control of purity and morphology.

Advantageously, the control of process parameters and the clean environment allow for better precision and reproducibility in the manufacture of the produced devices. For reactions where absorption plays a role, increasing the surface area of reactants further provide better efficiency.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1 . A method of forming a vapor-deposited film on a substrate, the method comprising:

positioning a vapor deposition mask adjacent to a surface of a substrate, wherein the vapor deposition mask comprises a base and at least one aperture; depositing a first deposition material on the vapor deposition mask, whereby at least a portion of the first deposition material that overlays the at least one aperture is deposited onto the surface of the substrate;

repeating the depositing step with a desired number of subsequent deposition materials; and

removing the mask to produce a substrate with a vapor deposited surface having a specific geometry comprising layers of the first deposition material and the subsequent deposition materials.

The method of claim 1 , wherein the first and subsequent deposition materials comprise one or more metals, alloys, isotopes, or combinations thereof.

The method of claim 2, wherein the first and subsequent deposition materials are selected from one or more of ₄₆Pd, ¹⁰²Pd, ¹⁰⁴Pd, ¹⁰⁵Pd, ¹⁰⁶Pd, ¹⁰⁸Pd, ¹¹⁰Pd,

The method of claim 1 , wherein the vapor deposition mask is positioned directly adjacent to the substrate surface.

The method of claim 1 , wherein an initial deposition material is deposited on the substrate prior to positioning the vapor deposition mask adjacent to a surface of the substrate.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the mask is held statically in an XY direction over the substrate during each deposition to create a columnar structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the substrate surface.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein the one or more layers of the columnar structure comprise one or more different deposition materials.

8. The method of claim 1 , further comprising depositing a coating material on the vapor deposited surface of the substrate after the mask has been removed.

9. The method of claim 1 , wherein the mask can be moved over the surface of the substrate in the XY and Z directions during the depositing steps to produce an inter-layered structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the substrate surface.

10. A substrate formed by the method of claim 1 .

1 1 . The substrate of claim 10, configured as a hydrogen-absorbing metallic electrode.

12. A method of forming a hydrogen-absorbing electrode, the method comprising:

positioning a vapor deposition mask adjacent to a surface of an electrode substrate, wherein the vapor deposition mask comprises a base and at least one aperture;

depositing a first deposition material on the vapor deposition mask, whereby at least a portion of the first deposition material that overlays the at least one aperture is deposited onto the surface of the electrode substrate;

repeating the depositing step with a desired number of subsequent deposition materials; and removing the mask to produce hydrogen-absorbing electrode with a vapor deposited surface having a specific geometry comprising layers of the first deposition material and the subsequent deposition materials.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein the first and subsequent deposition materials comprise one or more metals, alloys, isotopes, or combinations thereof.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the first and subsequent deposition materials are selected from one or more of ₄₆Pd, ¹⁰²Pd, ¹⁰⁴Pd, ¹⁰⁵Pd, ¹⁰⁶Pd, ¹⁰⁸Pd, ¹¹⁰Pd, 2₈Ni, ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, ⁶¹Ni, ⁶²Ni, or ⁶⁴Ni.

15. The method of claim 12, wherein the mask is held statically in an XY direction over the electrode substrate during each deposition to create a columnar structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the substrate surface.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the one or more layers of the columnar structure comprise one or more different deposition materials.

17. The method of claim 12, further comprising depositing a coating material on the vapor deposited surface of the electrode substrate after the mask has been removed.

18. The method of claim 12, wherein the mask can be moved over the surface of the substrate in the XY and Z directions during the depositing steps to produce an inter-layered structure with one or more layers of deposition materials on the electrode substrate surface.

19. An electrode formed by the method of claim 12.

20. The electrode of claim 19, configured as a hydrogen-absorbing metallic electrode.