WO1995016995A1 - Method for producing heat - Google Patents

Abstract

Employing cavitation as an energy source, excess energy is produced, as well as transmutation of elements. Particularly, deuterium oxide (14) is subjected to cavitation under transient bubble formation conditions in the presence of a metal surface (26), whereby colapse of the bubbles at the metal surface results in the production of heat and the transmutation of the hydrogen isotope. Various metals can be used, as well as various parameters as to temperature, pressure, acoustic energy (12), acoustic frequency, and composition of the reactants, which may be employed to vary the results.

Description

METHOD FOR PRODUCING HEAT

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of application Serial No. 08/160,941, filed December 3, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part of application Serial No. 07/782,558, filed October 5, 1991, now abandoned.

INTRODUCTION Technical Field

The field of this invention concerns the production of heat as a result of atomic reactions within a metal lattice.

Background of the Invention

With increasing populations and increasing dependence upon energy utilization to maintain societies, the search for energy sources which are alternatives to the ones used today has been diligently pursued. One of the major efforts has been directed to atomic fusion, wherein atomic plasma is maintained in a magnetic bottle. The high energies released by the fusion of elements results in the production of substantial heat in high energy particles and radiation. While this approach to the production of energy has many attractions, as yet it has not been successful in maintaining the production of heat for an extended period of time, it produces radioactive ash, and the success of the method is still relegated to an uncertain future. Therefore, while much promise still exists for this approach, for the time being no significant reliance may be made upon its success.

An alternative approach to fusion, referred to as "cold fusion" has also been reported. However, this approach has received some skepticism in the literature and has not been shown to be reliable in its reproducibility. Nevertheless, a large number of investigators have shown that one can produce heat by fusion of hydrogen isotopes, with the resultant production of tritium, ³He and ⁴He. There is now sufficient evidence in laboratories around the world to establish that the presence of hydrogen isotopes in a metal lattice under electrolytic conditions results in the production of heat beyond that introduced in the electrolytic system, as well as the production of elements of higher atomic number than the isotopic hydrogen employed.

The cold fusion systems to date have not satisfied the needs for improved reliability, ease of operation, reduced dependence on materials for which there is inadequate characterization, and higher efficiencies of energy production as compared to energy input.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Energy is produced by directing transient cavitation bubble collapse at a metal surface with adsorbed hydrogen isotope. The conditions under which the bubble collapses and the material content of the bubble are selected to provide excess heat over the energy introduced into the system, as well as to provide elements of higher and/or lower atomic number. The system may be maintained in an electromagnetic force field or acoustic field during the reaction. The resulting heat may be transferred to a heat acceptor or transformed directly into a different form of energy. Devices are provided for performing the method. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figure 1 is a schematic of a device for heat production;

Figure 2 is an enlarged view of the reaction vessel shown in Figure 1;

Figure 3 is a projected view of the window and related elements as shown in Figure 2 in an exploded relation;

Figure 4 is an alternative embodiment of the subject device;

Figure 5 is a further alternative embodiment employing a plurality of cells for heating a flowing exchange fluid;

Figure 6 is a schematic of an alternative embodiment demonstrating electricity output;

Figure 7 is an alternative embodiment of reduced size for providing heat;

Figure 8 is a cross section in diagrammatic form of a reactor; and

Figures 9a, b, c and d are enlarged views of portions of the reactor.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

Methods and apparatuses are provided for the production of heat, as well as the production of elements of higher and/or lower atomic number than the isotopic hydrogen and other atomic nuclei which serve as the reactants. The method employs directing high energy low atomic number atoms into a matrix, particularly a metal matrix, in which molecules of at least one hydrogen isotope are adsorbed. A significant number of parameters are involved in determining the efficiency of energy production and the nature and efficiency of new atomic isotope production. The parameters of interest include the manner in which the high energy bubbles are produced, particularly the parameters associated with the formation and characteristics of transient bubbles and their collapse against a solid surface, which parameters include the nature of the composition within the bubble, the size of the bubble, the energy employed in forming the bubble, the temperature and pressure at which the bubble is formed and collapses, the pulse cycle, and the direction of the stream of particles emanating from the bubble. Other parameters may include an electromagnetic force field in which the bubble is formed and collapses, as well as the solid surface upon which the bubble collapses, the manner of absorption or adsorption and composition of the element absorbed on the solid surface, the nature of the solid surface, its formation, and its acoustic properties, as well as the manner in which the heat is employed. (While adsorption is frequently considered the manner in which a gas, such as deuterium binds to a metal such as palladium, in the present invention, the gas atoms enter into the metal lattice and interact in the lattice. In effect, the gas atoms are absorbed in the metal lattice. Without intending to provide any theoretical basis for the events which occur in the lattice by use of the term absorption, it would appear that absorption better describes the event.)

The first consideration will be the composition of the fluid in which bubbles are formed. For the most part, the fluid will include a hydrogen isotope: hydrogen, deuterium and tritium and their respective nuclei, which include a proton, deuteron and triton. Also, other low atomic number elements may be present particularly as ions, such as lithium (6) . The hydrogen isotope may be present as a diatomic molecule, as a molecule in which the isotope is bonded to another atom, such as oxygen, carbon, alkali or other metal, particularly lithium, bismuth, calcium, mercury, uranium, thorium, and the like, nitrogen, phosphorous, boron, usually non-metallic elements of the first and second rows, particularly of columns 1 to 5 or metallic elements which form hydrides. The compositions may include hydrogen molecules, deuterium molecules, water, heavy water (deuterium oxide) , tritium oxide, alkanes of from 1 to 12 carbon atoms (methane, butane, etc.) , alkanols of from 1 to 12 carbon atoms (methanol, ethanol, pentanol, etc., silanes, metal hydrides, and the like. The choice of compound will depend upon many factors, such as the temperature and pressure at which the method is operated, the nature of the surface, so as to maintain an active surface and avoid undesirable coatings or corrosion of the surface, and the like. Individual compositions or combinations of compositions may be employed, where the isotopes which are employed may be the same or different. Under the conditions of the method, the composition will be a mobile liquid which is capable of forming bubbles .

The bubbles are referred to as transient cavitation bubbles, since they generally survive only for a single cycle. Thus, the energy density concentrated in the bubble is transferred to the surface without repetitive expansion and contraction of the bubble. This process increases the energy density in the collapsing bubble by many orders of magnitude, usually 10 orders or greater, as compared to the original energy of the bubble. For the most part, the bubbles will be at least about 1 micron and not more than about 250 microns, usually less than about 100 microns, more usually in the range of about 10 to 100 microns.

In order to provide for nucleation, the liquid used for the formation of the bubbles will normally be degassed and then regassed with an appropriate gas. Preferably, inert gases, particularly noble gases will be used, with the higher atomic weights providing for greater mass and slower heat transfer. The preferred gases will be hydrogen, deuterium, nitrogen, helium, argon and xenon, particularly argon and xenon individually or in combination. By initially degassing with a vacuum, the pressurizing gas may then be introduced at the desired pressure and maintained at the selected pressure during the run.

Bubbles may be produced by a wide variety of methods, using acoustical devices, mechanical devices, fluid flow devices, and the like. Conveniently, the bubbles are produced by an induced pressure wave. For acoustical devices, one may use a sonicator, employing a piezoelectric vibrator transducer, or other oscillating electronic or mechanical devices. Alternatively, one may use jets, Venturi tubes, porous devices providing for flow-through pressure differential, propellers, rotating or centrifugal devices which produce turbulence, hydraulic pistons, etc. The particular manner in which the bubbles are formed is not critical to this invention, although it has been found that a sonicator is particularly convenient in providing for energy control and bubble formation. One or more devices may be used so that a plurality of surfaces may be subjected to cavitation, e.g. devices on opposite sides of a metal foil serving as a cavitation surface. The acoustic wave which is produced may be a non-focused wave. Where other than an acoustic device is used for bubble production, one may augment the energy of the bubble by using an acoustic device in conjunction with the other device.

The temperature of the fluid will vary substantially from input and output. Since the system generates a substantial amount of heat, there will be a substantial rise in temperature of the fluid during its residency in the reactor. While one would not require fluid flow, if there was an efficient way to remove the heat from the liquid, so as to provide a substantially isothermal condition in the reactor, the most convenient way to maintain the temperature is to control the rate of flow of the liquid through the reactor and the temperature of the liquid entering the reactor. Depending upon the desired exit temperature and the other parameters associated with the reaction, the temperature of the entering fluid may be ambient (20°C) and up to about 100° C or greater, preferably from about 20°C to 80°C. The temperature of the entering fluid will depend upon the temperature of the exiting fluid, the heat exchange employed, the nature of the composition being used, and the like. The exit temperature which reflects the reactor temperature will be below about 350°C and may be as low as about 55°C, usually not lower than about 75°C, again depending upon the general operating conditions of the reactor and heat exchange. Desirably the exit temperature will be at least about 75°C, preferably at least about 100°C, and generally not more than about 250° C, usually not more than about 200°C. The pressure in the reactor will be high enough to maintain a liquid phase, so that the higher the temperature to which the fluid reaches in the reactor, the higher the pressure required to maintain the composition in the fluid phase, in relation to the vapor pressure of the composition in the reactor. For example, deuterium oxide at about 350°C would require about 200 atm. to maintain a liquid phase. Therefore, the pressure will generally be at least one atm., usually at least two atms. , and not greater than about 200 atm. , preferably not greater than about 150 atms.

The energy source for the production of bubbles may be cycled, so as to be on a portion of the time and off a portion of the time. It is found that the reaction continues after the energy source is turned down or off, so that one can cycle the energy source while still retaining energy output. Depending on the degree to which the energy output can vary during a cycle, the on-off periods can be varied greatly, with one or the other period being of greater duration. The time ratio of the on period to off period will be in the range of about 0.001 - 1000:1, usually in the range of about 0.01 - 100:1, frequently in the range of about 0.04 - 10:1. By allowing the reaction to proceed in the absence of energy input, a higher ratio of energy output to energy input may be achieved. For production of bubbles, as already indicated, a sonicator ("transducer") finds particular use. The energy provided by the sonicator will generally be a least about 1 W/cm², frequently at least 2 W/cm², and usually not greater than about 10 W/cm², more usually not greater than about 5 W/cm², generally being greater than about 1, usually 3, W/cm², at the cavitation surface. The frequency will usually be at least about 5Hz, more usually at least about 10Hz and could go to 1MHz or greater, generally not greater than about O.lMHz, usually not greater than about lOKHz. Ranges of interest include from 5Hz, usually from 10Hz to lOKHz, and from 40KHz to about O.lMHz. The frequency will affect the size of the bubble, so that one can control the energy density of the bubble and the energy which is dissipated upon collapse by the energy of the transducer, the frequency of the transducer, and the temperature of the fluid. These factors are therefore interactive in controlling the energy at which the bubble collapses.

Other parameters associated with sonication include the cycling schedule, where the sonication is on from 10 to 95% of the time and off the other portion of the time where each cycle will be from about 0.1 to 1200 sec. A more complex pattern of a non-uniform time for each cycle or cycle component may be employed. The maximum acoustic power amplitude will generally be in the range of about 1 to 50, usually about 5 to 20, and preferably about 3 to 6 atms/cm2. Since the energy at which the bubble collapses can mechanically erode the metal surface, this also must be given consideration in the operation of the reactor. Depending upon the nature of the surface, its ability to withstand the forces of the collapsing bubble without erosion, the ease of replacement, and the cost of the surface, one may compromise the efficiency of the system in producing heat for extended periods of operation and infrequency of replacement of the solid surface. There is a correlation between the acoustic energy input and the excess heat produced in microfusion devices that points to a coupling of the transient cavitation bubbles (TCB) and the excess heat. At low and high external pressures in the reactor there is little if any excess heat generated. At low pressures the bubble formation is suppressed with no effective TCB formation in either case. The TCB formation and the excess heat formation is dictated by the temperature and the acoustic energy in and delivered to the reactor.

It is found that the direction of the wave can affect the direction of the stream of the components of the bubble. Therefore, the sound wave front should be directed parallel to the solid surface, so as to provide for the primary direction of the bubble stream toward the solid surface. The subject method is designed to provide for asymmetric transient cavitation providing for a violent collapse directing the bubble contents into the metal.

The reactor may be maintained in the presence of an electromagnetic field, where the field is created by an electrical or magnetic field. The field may be produced by employing two electrodes, where one of the electrodes may be a metal plate for transmitting sound waves and the opposite electrode may be grid-like or mesh, which allows for observation of the solid surface and transmission of energy to the solid surface. An electric field in the range of 5- 100 volts may be employed. Alternatively, the field may be maintained by two poles of a magnet. The field will generally be of about 100 to 10,000 gauss, more usually of about 1000 to 6000 gauss.

The component providing the solid cavitation surface may take many forms, such as film, foil, plate, particles, grid, mesh, e.g. having a "wool-like" structure, such as steel wool, etc. The surface may be smooth, crazed, etched, sputtered, etc., preferably having bubble nuclei forming crevices. The hydrogen isotope absorbing material may be used as the sole material or may be coated onto a different material, such as a ceramic, thermally stable plastic, metal alloy, or the like. The surface will comprise a metal that is capable of adsorbing or absorbing a hydrogen isotope, which includes metals (stable isotopes) of Groups IV and VIII of the Periodic Chart; specific metals find use, such as palladium (Pd) , uranium (U) , thorium (Th) , titanium (Ti) , vanadium (V) , chromium (Cr) , niobium (Nb) , tantalum (Ta) , hafnium (Hf) , platinum (Pt) , rhodium (Rh) , iridium (Ir) , as well as such metals as aluminum (Al) , nickel (Ni) , bismuth

(Bi) , iron (Fe) , molybdenum (Mo) , tungsten (W),etc. The metal may be a pure metal or an alloy, e.g. steel, stainless or carbon, or combination of metals, such as the lanthinides, e.g. aluminum lanthinide, misch metals, comprising small amounts of cerium and samarium, in conjunction with larger amounts of such metals as nickel, V₅Fe, etc. Desirably, the metals are capable of high valency and high ratio of hydrogen isotope adsorption and absorption, going from palladium, to titanium, to zirconium, to vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten.

The volume of the reactor may be varied widely, depending upon the manner of formation of the bubbles, the energy available for formation of the bubbles, the desired size of the bubbles, the efficiency of heat transfer, the manner of heat transfer, and the like. It would generally be desirable that the bubbles will expand or travel not more than about 500μ, preferably not more than about 250μ from their site of initiation to the surface at which they collapse. Therefore, the film of liquid between the bubble generator and site of collapse generally will be thin. The diameter of the collapsing bubble will generally be in the range of about less than 1 micron to greater than 1 cm, more usually in the range of about 1 micron to 50 microns. In addition, fluid may be present surrounding the lattice to add to the volume and enhance heat transfer. Generally, in relation to the lattice area, the volume will be 0.02 - 10 ml per unit cm², more usually about 0.2 ml per unit cm². The total circulating volume will usually be at least about 0.5 ml per unit cm², more usually at least 2 ml per unit cm², and has no upper limit other than one of convenience and the intended use.

Prior to or during the time of initiation of transient bubble formation, hydrogen isotope gas will be absorbed to the lattice surface. The presence of the hydrogen isotope on the surface can be achieved in a variety of ways, depending upon the nature of the surface. A number of metals, particularly metals such as palladium and titanium will absorb the hydrogen isotopes on their surface, so that no additional energy is required. Alternatively, electrolysis may be carried out, where the lattice surface may be one electrode and the fluid may comprise a source of hydrogen isotope atoms. Other ways for providing absorption include loading under pressure or in the metallurgical manufacturing process or the like.

The metal surface may provide for compound formation, such as oxide formation or may be initially formed as the oxide. The oxide will tend to slow the reaction, so that under conditions where one wishes to have a slower reaction, oxide formation can be used with advantage.

In carrying out the process, the critical elements will be the (lattice) collapsing bubble surface, the source of transient bubble formation, and the bubble forming fluid. For illustrative purposes, it will be assumed that the fluid is deuterium oxide which has been degassed and to which a monatomic inert gas has been added, e.g. argon. The pressure and temperature of the entering fluid is determined. Besides the reactor volume, that portion of the fluid that occupies the reactor and is subject to bubble formation, the total volume of the reaction fluid may also be selected, where the total volume may be 2 to 100, more usually 3 to 10 times the reactor volume. Assuming flow of the reaction fluid, circulation of the fluid may begin. Where a hydrogen isotope is present in the fluid, electrolysis may begin, to provide for adsorbed or absorbed hydrogen isotope on the lattice collapsing bubble surface. Bubble formation may then begin by providing for transient bubble formation, using a sonicator. The acoustic density, pulse cycle and power amplitude can then be set to provide for the desired energy for the transient bubbles. The reaction may then be allowed to proceed for sufficient time, usually at least about 1 min and generally at least about 5 min and maybe 2 weeks or longer, depending upon the needs for the energy, the nature of the system, and the like.

Various systems may be employed in conjunction with the heat formation. By employing thermoelectric devices, which may be attached to the reactor, particularly on the opposite side from the transient bubble forming device, the heat may be directly transformed into electricity. Various devices which may be employed to produce electricity include thermo¬ electric cells, Seebeck devices, bimetallic motor devices, etc. Alternatively, one may employ a heat exchanger, which may be concentric tubes, where the fluid from the reactor flows past the heat receiving fluid. One may also provide for vanes, where the fluid from the reactors pass through vanes in a bath, which contains vanes for the heat receiving fluid, so as to maintain the bath at a constant temperature. Various other heat exchange mechanisms may be employed. Alternatively, one can use the fluid, as a liquid or vapor to drive various mechanical devices, e.g. turbines, to provide mechanical or electrical energy directly, where all or a portion of the heat generated in the reactor may be dissipated.

There are two different systems which will be considered in the figures. The first system is a dual system, which uses light water in the sonicator or energy transducing portion and heavy water in the reaction system. The heavy water provides the heat production. In the second system, a single system is used where heavy water serves in both the sonicator and the reaction system, providing heat production.

For further understanding of the invention, the drawings will now be considered.

FIRST ALTERNATIVE EMBODIMENT

The apparatus elements shown in Figure 1 can be gathered into subgroups or systems called components which are convenient for calorimetric measurements. These components are:

• The reaction volume 14 made up of the elements 18, 20, 22, 26, 36, 38, 39 and 42 monitored by thermocouples 148 and 149.

• The sonication volume 16 made up of the elements 12, 22, 81, 96, 97, 98, 99 and 100 monitored by thermocouples 152 and 151.

• The reaction volume heat exchanger 162 made up of the elements 52, 54, 56 and 44 monitored by thermocouple 154.

• The sonication volume heat exchanger 163 made up of the elements 70, 77, 79 and 83 monitored by thermocouple

155.

• The reaction volume system pump 165 is element 50 and is monitored by thermocouples 150 and 148.

• The sonication volume system pump 164 is element 72 and is monitored by thermocouples 153 and 152.

The experimental apparatus for creating the environment for this phenomenon consists of two closed circulation systems that maintain the proper external pressure and temperature so that cavitation bubbles can be produced over extended time periods. The larger system is the sonication system in which water was circulated through a 15 L heat exchanger 83 as shown in Figure 1. An external pressure of air or nitrogen 65 is maintained to reduce cavitation in the sonication system allowing more acoustic energy into the reaction volume 14. The latter system was concentric with the sonication volume 16 and was located above it. The two reservoirs of the two systems were separated by a 1 mm (40 mil) stainless steel disk 22. In the 15 ml reaction reservoir, 18, heavy water was circulated at a rate of 300 ml/min by flow meter 51 through a 3.3 L heat exchanger 162. The external pressure of the gases was adjusted to a value in the reaction volume system to optimize the character of transient cavitation bubbles. The two concentric 7.5 cm diameter acoustically connected systems were run at steady state temperature conditions (where input and output power are maintained at a steady state after an initial start-up period) . The reaction reservoir 18 contained the palladium foil 26. Critical temperatures were monitored at various points in the two systems, tracking the total energy input and output with time. The acoustic field was generated by a 64 mm (2.5 inch) titanium acoustic horn 12 tuned to 20 Khz. The acoustic energy delivered to the Pd foil 26 was about 3 watts/cm². The containment for the sonication system and horn was 1/2 inch thick expandable aluminum split sliding cylinders 96 and 97, and for the reaction volume, a 3/4 inch thick stainless steel ring 20. This describes a special configuration of the sonicator volume in Figure 1 where one may move the horn 12 with respect to the stainless steel separator disk 22 to allow better control of the acoustic energy delivered to the reaction volume.

The pressure gauges were digital compound gauges from TIF Instrument Co., which measured a pressure of 30 inch Hg(60 psig) . The gas mixers 46 and 66 were 25 ml Pyrex bulbs. The gas or gases in the reaction volume were deuterium 62 and/or argon 64. The gas in the sonication volume was nitrogen 65. The flow meters were from Key Instrument, (Trevose, Pennsylvania) with an acrylic body and a stainless steel float.

The circulating pumps 50 and 72 were magnetically driven from Micro Pumps, located in Concord, California, with Teflon^® gears and a stainless steel body, part 07002-23, coupled with a variable speed motor, part 07002-45. The pump's interior material exposure to the circulating heavy water was to Teflon^® and stainless steel. The valves were FEP Teflon^® from Galtek Corp., as were the tubing and fittings. The thermocouples were type K from OMEGA along with the No. 871 output thermocouple reading devices and the HH20SW multiprobe switch boxes. The reaction volume interior material exposure to the circulating heavy water was FEP and stainless steel . The input and output ports were supplied with Teflon^® fittings for the FEP tubing which was used throughout the apparatus.

The electric isolation of the reaction volume was accomplished using Teflon^® gaskets 108 shown in Fig. 2 with the sandwiching of reaction volume 14 and separating disk 22 to the sonication volume with six 12.7 mm (1/2 inch) nylon bolts 38. The sonication volume 16 was machined from an aluminum block to accommodate a 63.5 mm (2.5 inch) horn 12. The heat exchanger 162 for the reaction volume 14, was a polyethylene container with stirrer 54 for the light water coolant 56, which received from the reaction volume the hot heavy water from reaction volume 14, which then passed through a coiled 1/8 inch stainless heat exchange coil element 44, then back to the reaction volume. The heat exchanger for the sonication volume 163 was a polyethylene container 83 with stirrer 77 for the light water coolant 70, which received from the sonication volume the hot light water 81 which then passed through a coiled 1/4 inch copper heat exchange coil element 79, then back to the sonication volume. The apparatus was first cleaned then bolted together and the reaction system was pressurized with deuterium or argon testing for tightness and leaks. When satisfied that the system was tight, the degassed heavy water 121 was added to the reaction volume loop and circulated, removing any remaining system gas bubbles to the gas mixing bulb 46. The addition of water to the sonicator loop and its pressurization with nitrogen 65 was the next step. The purpose was to reduce the cavitation in the sonication volume 81 (the acoustic pressure, which was delivered to the stainless steel disk, did not produce cavitation damage in the sonication volume because the formation of bubbles was repressed by the high external pressure) . The apparatus was brought close to the operating temperature by filling the two heat exchangers, 162 and 163, with preheated water. Both the heat exchangers were stirred with stirrers 54 and 77. The two pumps 50 and 72 were turned on circulating the heavy and light water through their respective systems. At this point, the reaction volume was filled with gas to the appropriate external pressure; then, the initial temperatures were measured, the sonicator 78 was turned on, the time was noted, and the run was started.

Figure 3 B is the detail of the reactor from Figure 1. A stainless steel reaction volume 20 which consists of a top 36 machined of aluminum allowing for viewing through ports 40 and supporting a FEP sealed window 42. The seal is made by "0" rings 110. The bottom is a stainless steel disk 22 with two insulating FEP flat gaskets 108 sealed by "O" rings 111 and 112. The window 36 is fastened to the reaction volume via stainless steel ring 39 cushioned by "O" ring

109.

Figure 3 A shows the reaction volume. Electrodes 32 are passed through ports 113 and 114. One electrode 32 is attached to the grid 24 which is insulated from the rest of the system by FEP insulator 25. The other electrode 32 is attached to the stainless steel disk 22 making it the other electrode.

The reaction vessel is clamped together and to the rest of the system using nylon bolts 38. The output of the reaction vessel is 28 and the input is 30.

Referring now to Figure 4, an alternate embodiment of the cold fusion device described above follows.

In this particular embodiment, the heat generated within the reaction vessel 218 is surrounded with heat exchange liquid 281.

The system depicted in Figure 4 includes a piezoelectric crystal or ceramic sonicator 276, which is positioned adjacent to the reaction vessel 218 and which is immersed in a cooling medium 281. This particular cooling medium 281 is comparable to the cooling system described in the principal embodiment. However, in this particular embodiment it completely surrounds the reaction vessel and sonicator, rather than being just beneath it. In like manner, a coolant pump 272 will circulate water into and out of this cooling medium 281. Appropriate heat exchanger and the like may be affixed to the structure in a manner similar to the principal embodiment, within the containment vessel 212.

(Containment vessel 212 is used in a descriptive sense to indicate that the entire structure may be contained within one vessel.) The reaction vessel 218 is positioned in the center of such containment vessel, with the cooling medium 281 surrounding it within the containment vessel.

Entering into the containment vessel is a control stem 214 which is used to provide conduit means for appropriate conductors 216 leading to the sonicator 276. Other control devices, such as temperature indicating devices 225 and pressure indicating devices 224, may be positioned adjacent to the control stem 214 with the necessary electrical leads. In order to provide deuterium oxide and deuterium to the reaction vessel 218, conduits 228 and 230 are provided to the reaction vessel. These conduits may be used in a manner similar to the conduits in the principal embodiment to control to a degree the heat within the reaction vessel, should such control be necessary. The liquid in reaction volume 218 is kept circulating by pump 250. The excess heat generated in reaction volume 218 is exchanged with the fluid 281 of the containment system. On the other hand, it may be appropriate to keep the structure at a heat somewhat higher than in the principal embodiment, thereby depending upon coolant medium 281. In that vein, conduit 274 and return conduit 278 may be provided to the coolant medium 281 so that water or heat transfer material may be circulated by pump 272 to the containment vessel. Finally, an appropriate power supply 227 is provided to the sonicator 276.

Operation of the First Alternate Embodiment

Operation of the alternate embodiment follows generally that of the principal embodiment. The heat generated in reaction volume 218 with the interaction of cavitation bubbles on the surface of Pd wool or wire 226 is removed quickly through the thin wall 242 and the liquid circulated via pump 250. Heat exchange liquid is circulated through heat exchange coil 279 (space heater) . The liquid circulation is accomplished with pump 272 replacing the hot liquid 281 with cool liquid via conduits 274 and 278.

SECOND ALTERNATE EMBODIMENT

Now referring to Figure 5, the second alternate embodiment of a microfusion device is shown, consisting of multiple small devices 302 that are closed systems acting in concert. These devices take the sum of the heat generated in all mini devices in the flow pipe system 300 and in the fluid 381, circulate it, and use the heat for some specified purpose. The heat generated within reaction volume 318 is in the fashion of earlier stated technology. The acoustic energy is supplied by the piezoelectric crystal 376 via electric conduit 301 which also transfers temperature information to soni-control 378 for control of the heat transfer for all of the mini devices. The crystal 376 is bonded to the metal membrane 322 which is in contact with the deuterium oxide in volume 318. Also in volume 318 is the palladium wire or wool 326 which provides the surface and lattice for the heat producing fusion events. The threaded hex sealing nut 310 seals the acoustic membrane 322 via "O" ring 307 to the body 342 of the reaction volume. The volume 318 is equipped with a filling port 330 and pressure release valve 393. The mini devices are sealed into the tube or heat flow pipe 300 via threaded element 346 and "O" ring 305.

Operation of the Second Alternate Embodiment

Operation of the second alternate embodiment follows generally that of the first alternative embodiment. The heat generated in reaction volume 318 from the interaction of cavitation bubbles on the surface of Pd wool or wire 326 is removed quickly through the wall of 342. The liquid in 302 relies on convection from the wire 326 to the liquid contained in reaction volume 318, then through the wall of body 342. Here the heat is transferred to the circulating liquid 381 and carried to the point of use. In summary, the heat generated by fusion events is transported by pipe 300 circulating liquid 381 at a rate controlled by valves 371 to a device similar to that found in the first alternate embodiment. The mini microfusion cells embedded in the pipe 300 serve to provide constant and even heat to the circulating liquid which can be extracted at some point downstream for the users' benefit, then returned as cool liquid for reheating and reuse. THIRD ALTERNATE EMBODIMENT

Now referring to Figure 6, the third alternate embodiment of a fusion device is shown. In this embodiment, the heat generated within the reaction vessel 418 is converted to electricity- or electrical current by means of a thermoelectric device 402 (TED) using the heat differential developed between the palladium lattice 426 and the heat exchange fluid 470. The TED 402 can take the configuration shown schematically in Figure 6, which is a series arrangement. In Figure 6, there is a temperature gradient between the two elements 426 and 442. The system depicted in Figure 6 includes a sonicator 476 mounted on metal membrane 422 forming a wall of reaction volume 418. The reaction volume 418 is immersed in a heat exchange liquid 470 contained in insulated box 412.

The entire system is contained in the box 412 so as to capture most of the heat generated by all factors (cavitation, electronics, and lattice events) . The sonicator 476 is protected, as is the power supply and control for the sonicator 424 and the temperature sensing and control 425, from the liquid 470 by shield 497, keeping the electrical components therein dry. The TED 402 is a sealed volume which consists of the palladium 426 and the outer wall 447, and can be filled with deuterium gas 462. The reaction volume is situated in the center of confinement vessel 412 with the heat exchange liquid surrounding it within the containment vessel. Entering into the containment volume is stem 414 which is used to provide conduit means for appropriate conductors 416 leading to the electric input for the sonicator 476. Another conduit 466 performs the function of (1) allowing deuterium pressure to both the reaction volume 418 and the TED volume 447 for the purpose of keeping the deuterium at equilibrium pressure in the palladium lattice, and (2) acting as a conduit for the electric energy transported to the outside of containment 412 and 447 by leads 406. The energy generated by TED is carried by 406 to the collection and distribution device 444. Other control devices for measuring pressure and temperature can be placed near either conduit 466 or 414 as a matter of practicality.

In order to provide deuterium oxide to the reaction volume 418, the conduit 466 can be used. The circulation of deuterium ox_de through the reaction volume 418 is via convection with the hot liquid in 418 rising into volume 446, then settling down after cooling through conduit 430 and traveling back into the reaction volume 418 through the bottom. The control of the temperature of the system is maintained at a steady state to maintain the best environment for cavitation. It may be appropriate to keep the fluid 470 cool by circulation to the outside environment for heat exchange via conduits 478 and 474 by pump 472.

Operation of the Third Alternate Embodiment

Operation of this alternate embodiment follows generally that of the first alternate embodiment; however, in this instance, a sonicator is operated adjacent the reaction vessel 418, thereby causing microfusion to occur in the palladium-faced thermoelectric device TED 402. Microfusion events raise the temperature at the hot junction 426 of the TED creating an electrical current within the system. Such current is tapped off through lead 406. A positive deuterium pressure is maintained in the TED containment 447.

FOURTH ALTERNATE EMBODIMENT

Referring now to Figure 7, in the fourth alternate embodiment pump 602 circulates D₂0 into reactor 600 through conduits 606 and 608. Where conduits 606 and 608 empty into reaction volume 604 are heaters 614 and 616 located outside of the acoustic field generated by sonicators 610 and 612. Above and below reaction volume 604 are sonicators 610 and 612. Located in the reaction volume 604 is metal lattice 618. D₂0 flows out of reactor 600 through conduits 620 and 622 through flow meter 624 and into bubbler 626. Pressure devices 628 control the pressure in the bubbler 626 and reactor 600. D₂0 flows back to the pump 602 whereby it is recirculated into the reactor 600.

In Figure 8 is depicted a cross section in diagrammatic form of a reactor 600. The reactor 600 has an upper aluminum ring 632 and a lower aluminum ring 634. An upper sonicator 612 and lower sonicator 610 are employed to provide for transient bubble formation above and below metal foil 618. The metal foil 618 is placed in the reactor area 604. The reactor area 604 has input ports 604 and 606 and output ports 620 and 622. Heaters 636 and 638 are provided for heating the incoming liquid to the desired temperature. Upper and lower ring insulators 636 and 638 respectively are provided for insulating lower and upper metal (e.g. stainless steel [S.S.]) electrodes 640 and 642, which electrodes also serve to transmit the energy from the sonicator to the fluid in reactor volume 604. The electrodes 640 and 642 are connected to circuit 644 to provide for a continuous electrical field during the course of the reaction.

The reactor is shown in greater detail in Figures 9a, b, and c.

The following examples are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation.

EXPERIMENTAL

The apparatus employed was substantially as described for Figure 1. The apparatus comprised two closed circulation systems, in which the proper external pressure and temperature were maintained to produce cavitation bubbles over extended time periods at steady state conditions. Bubbles were produced on the surface of a palladium foil by an acoustic generator operating at 20Khz providing a non- focused acoustic field with an average intensity on the foil of about 3W/cm² and an amplitude of about 3 atms.

The container comprising the sonicator provided for water circulation at a rate of 600ml/min through a 15 L heat exchanger. An external pressure of about 6 atm of nitrogen was maintained in the sonicator flow system to reduce cavitation in this system. The fluid in the reaction vessel and the fluid in the sonication vessel are separated by a 1mm stainless steel disc. The reaction volume in the reactor is 15ml and the reaction medium is circulated at a rate of 300ml/min through a 3.3L heat exchanger. The external pressures of gases were varied in the reaction volume system. The acoustic field was generated by a 64mm titanium acoustic horn tuned to 20 KHz. The sonication vessel was a 13mm thick aluminum cylinder, while the reactor vessel was a 19mm thick stainless steel cylinder. The internal walls of the reaction vessel were either FEP or stainless steel. Electric isolation of the reaction volume was accomplished using Teflon^® gaskets which sandwiched the reaction volume and disc to the sonication unit. the palladium foil was 50x50x0.lmm (Johnson Matthey Chemicals Ltd.) weighing 3g, and 99.9975% pure. The foil was suspended by being held at its corners by an FEP supporter in a plane parallel to that of the stainless steel disc. The heavy water employed was 99.9% pure, was degassed and pressurized with deuterium and/or argon, prior to use. The deuterium was shown to have 14 ppm ⁴He.

In carrying out the process, the apparatus was first cleaned and then bolted together. The reaction system was then pressurized with deuterium and/or argon and tested for tightness and leaks. The reaction medium was then added to the reactor and circulation system, carrying unwanted gas bubbles to the gas phase of the gas mixing bulb where the bubbles were removed. Water was then added to the sonicator system and pressurized with nitrogen. The apparatus was then brought close to the operating temperature by filling the two heat exchangers with preheated water, with stirring of the water in the heat exchangers. The pumps were then turned on to circulate the fluids in the two systems. The reaction volume was then pressurized with deuterium and/or argon, where different external gas pressures were employed for different runs. After pressurizing the system, the initial temperatures were measured, the sonicator turned on, and the run begun. Thermocouples were employed to determine the temperature of each component in each run. For the first 2 to 3 hours of each run, the temperatures of all components increased and then leveled off as the system approached steady state. Excess heat was determined by a steady-state measurement technique by measuring the heat output from each component of a system in a single run. The following table indicates the results of a number of studies.

TABLE 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 RUN NUM. GAS RATIO ⁴He REMARKS MS NORM EXT. TEMP. AMBI. INJECT ⁴He GAS. Rx VOL TEMP. TEMP. SIZE in μl^(c) PRESS. EXIT T RT (T-RT) (ml)

I 40/60 LTBG 3 0 ± 1 25.0 43 21 22

J 01/100 LTBG 3 0 + 1 38.2 46 20 26 _κ(a) 01/100 No MS (H ) 0 No MS 38.2 45 22 23

L 01/100 Inconclusive 3 1 + 1 11.8 53 22 31

M 01/100 .20 + .4μl 3 5 ± 1 30.9 60 22 38

R 01/100 Samp. Broke 0 ? 35.3 69 27 42

S 100/Tr .13 ± .04μl 1 9 + 3 44.1 57 26 31 t

_A(b) 100/Tr .12 ± .04μl 3 3 + 1 35.2 49 26 23

_B(d) 60/40 Samp. Broke 0 ? 36.8 58 26 32 _c(a) 60/40 No MS (H₅0) 0 No MS 36.8 53 30 23

N 0/100 22ppmBg^(e) 65ppm^(f) 51 ± 1 36.8 56 19 39

(a) Runs K and C were with light water and hydrogen runs; all others are heavy water.

(b) Run A was reading low exit temperature T values due to a TC short. Used new Pd foil.

(c) Diffusion of ⁴He from air into sample bulb is .02μl maximum (partial pressure of ⁴He in the atmosphere) .

(d) This run was 72 hours; all others were 24 hours.

(e) D₂ used in run N contained 12 ppm ⁴He.

(f) Sample run at the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Amarillo, Texas. All other samples were measured at S.R.I. , Menlo Park, CA.

On many occasions following heavy water-deuterium runs, the palladium foil was found to be discolored and deformed, where on some occasions the foil partially melted, displaying both high discoloration and prominent holes about 5mm in diameter. The monitoring of steady state heat energy output (about 400 watts over 24 to 72 hours) indicated that heavy water-deuterium runs were characterized by an output energy as high as 100 watts more than that found in comparable light water-hydrogen runs. A comparison of heavy water runs I, J, L, M, R and S to light water run K, as well as a comparison of heavy water runs A and B to the light water run C indicates a correlation between excess heat and ⁴He production.

In order to measure the ⁴He produced, a 35ml gas sampling bulb, equipped with 2 isolation valves and a gas syringe port, was inserted between isolation valves in the reaction volume system at the end of each heavy water run. A portion of the gas was transferred to the sampling bulb. The bulb, containing wet gases, was then removed from the system and 1 to 3ml of the gas transferred through the syringe port to a valved gas syringe. The gas from the gas valved syringe was then injected into the port of a mass spectrometer for analysis. lμl of pure ⁴He was injected directly into the mass spectrometer and served as a rough quantitative standard. The resolution of the mass spectrometer was about 0.01 mass units. This resolving power easily resolved the mass peaks, ⁴He and D₂. The potential for contamination of the gas with ⁴He from the argon and/or deuterium is unlikely, because in those runs where heat was not produced, ⁴He could not be detected.

The Palladium Foil Analysis

The ⁴He found by MS analysis may not account for all the excess heat. If DD fusion events occurred in the palladium lattice, then perhaps there were other fusion events that followed, energized by the DD events, causing small changes in the palladium lattice isotope distribution and perhaps some transmutation. Other possibilities for the generation of excess heat Q(x) , such as transmutations in the cavitation exposed palladium lattice, could be found by analyzing the exposed palladium foil, using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) . In an independent laboratory, a comparative analysis was made of before and after cavitation-exposed palladium sample using a Perkin Elmer Sciex Elan 500 ICP-MS, with a resolution of one mass unit . This analysis looked for changes in the before and after exposure of the metal palladium lattice samples, and was done six months after the completion of the above study.

The palladium foil, which had a purity of 99.9975%, used in runs I, J, K, L, M, R, and S had a certified elemental analysis by the vendor for 72 elements. The lattice impurities of interest for this particular analysis were rhodium at less than 3 ppm, silver at less than 1 ppm, and cadmium at less than 1 ppm (below the level of detection of the certified elemental analysis) . The ICP-MS analysis measured small differences in isotope concentrations of metals in the palladium foil lattice with masses similar to those of the palladium isotopes. The two palladium samples were dissolved in nitric acid, 0.024 gm before and 0.022 gm after exposure, and analyzed.

Some of the suspect stable transmuted isotopes in the mass range of interest were blocked from analysis by the high concentrations of the stable isotopes of palladium foil. The possible stable transmutations originating from palladium changes in the lattice and impurities that might be present are blocked to any ICP-MS analysis of low concentration transmutations or impurities, because of the high concentration of Pd isotopes. The low concentration isotopes can be analyzed below Pd mass number 100 and above mass number 112. The isotope Cdll4 is the only isotope definitely found in excess when compared to the unexposed palladium. The strip in the lower right defines the scope of the transmutation analysis.

Small differences in ion counts from the two dissolved palladium samples, before and after, were measurable only for those isotopes that were not blocked by the palladium isotopes. It would be of interest to measure any changes in the palladium isotope distribution, but these changes would be so small in the palladium rich system and therefore impossible to detect. This blocking limited detection of possible transmutations to the two cadmium isotopes Cdll2 and Cdll4, with the isotopes Cdll3 and Cdll6 not likely transmutation candidates. Only for the isotope Cdll4 was the difference in ion counts, equivalent to 30 + 10 ion counts, statistically significant as an analytical result.

TABLE 2

LISTING OF ANALYSIS VALUES AND RESULTS

FOR THE ICP-MS ISOTOPE ANALYSIS

FOR CADMIUM IN THE PALLADIUM FOIL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ICP MS ION COUNT REACTION BLANK BEFORE AFTER CHANGE CADMIUM % NATURAL ISOTOPE ABUNDANCE

No measured Rx 12.75

Pd¹⁰⁸[He,]Cd¹¹² 11 ± 2 17 ± 7 34 ± 9 24.07

Ag¹⁰⁹[D,]Cd¹¹³ 11 ± 3 18 ± 5 28 + 7 12.26

Pd¹¹⁰[He,]Cd¹¹⁴ 13 ± 1 12 ± 4 49 ± 9 28.85

No Pd¹¹² isotope 13 ± 1 32 ± 8 36 + 6 7.58

I v

I

In Table 2, the ICP-MS analysis of the unblocked cadmium isotopes found in the exposed and unexposed palladium foil is shown. Column 1 is a list of fusion reactions of a hot alpha or a deuteron with a palladium lattice isotope forming a cadmium isotope. Column 2 is the ion count of the acid used to dissolve the sample. Column 3 is the ion count of the palladium foil before the exposure to the cavitation process. Column 4 is the ion count of the palladium foil after the exposure to the cavitation process.

Column 5 is the change in ion counts between columns 2 and 3 taken together when compared to column 4. (The change in the ion count is close to ppm values for cadmium in the palladium foil.) The relative sensitivities of Cd and Pd, which were not measured during the analysis, are related to their relative average ionization potentials which are close in value.

Column 6 is the list of cadmium isotopes. Column 7 is the natural abundance of some of the stable cadmium isotopes. The ion counts for the metal isotopes are close to the ppm concentration that existed in the 3 gm palladium foil, before and after the runs I-S in Table 1. No Cdll6 was found in the exposed sample and little, if any, Cdll2 and Cdll3. The analysis did find Cdll4 at a level 30±10 counts, which relates to about 30+10 ppm in the exposed sample when compared to the unexposed palladium sample.

The above result could be attributed to a redistribution of a cadmium contaminant in the system in the course of heavy water-deuterium runs. If such contamination was present, it would have led to an increase in all cadmium isotopes. In particular, if a level of the isotope Cdll6 had been found, contamination could explain the analytical result. On the other hand, there being no Pdll2 isotope, no Cdll6 could have been formed through a transmutation process of palladium in the after sample. The latter was the case; there were no measurable differences in the ICP-MS ion counts for the isotope Cdll6. The presence of Cdll4, without the presence of Cdll6, points to a transmutation mechanism rather than to a cadmium contamination source.

In the next study, palladium and titanium foils were employed, where the titanium foil had a size of 50mm x 50mm x 0.2mm (~2 grams) . The procedures employed have been already described above, specific conditions being provided in the following table.

TABLE 3

Run Foil Cavitation Gas ⁴He ³He/⁴He Thickness Time Pressure Cone. Ratio . sec x 10³ Atm ppm*

1 Pd 250 68.52 Ar 552 <l.lxl0^"6

2 Ti 100 13.50 Ar 0.75 5.4xl0^"3

^♦Nominal ⁴He cone, in cylinder and the assumed values for V_c (50ml) and the sample pressure P_c (1.0 - 1.1 atm)

I -

The above results demonstrate a number of factors. First, there is substantially greater heat being produced as compared to the amount of heat which is introduced into the system as various forms of energy. Thus, the total energy which is obtained from the system is greater than the total energy which is introduced into the system in the various forms of heat, mechanical energy and electrical energy. Secondly, helium is produced in amounts substantially greater than can be explained by contamination of the system. The excess helium is produced substantially reproducibly and correlates with the amount of heat produced with the system. Furthermore, transmutation appears to occur in the formation of cadmium from palladium. Finally, using titanium foil, a substantially enhanced ratio of ³He to He is obtained, which requires that there be production of ³He from the interaction between deuterium and the titanium foil. The subject invention therefore provides a number of important capabilities, in that heat can be produced, novel isotopes can be produced, and most importantly, energy which is employed can be amplified in a safe way with simple devices using inexpensive, clean materials.

All publications and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims.

Claims

HAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A method for producing heat, said method comprising: forming high energy transient bubbles in a hydrogen isotope containing liquid medium at a temperature below about 350°C in the presence of a metal surface, whereby said bubbles direct said hydrogen isotope at high energy into said metal surface with formation of heat in excess of the heat generated by the bubble bursting; wherein said metal surface is titanium or said forming cycles energy input; and collecting the resulting heat.

2. A method according to Claim 1, wherein said hydrogen isotope is deuterium, said liquid medium is deuterium oxide, and said liquid medium is at an elevated temperature and pressure.

3. A method according to Claim 2, wherein said temperature is at least about 10°C and said pressure is at least about 2 atm.

4. A method according to Claim 1, wherein said metal surface is a metal of Groups IV to VIII of the Periodic Chart.

5. A method according to Claim 4, wherein said metal is titanium.

6. A method for producing heat, said method comprising: forming by acoustical means high energy transient bubbles in a hydrogen isotope containing liquid medium at a temperature below about 350°C in the presence of a metal surface, whereby said bubbles direct said hydrogen isotope at high energy into said metal surface with formation of heat in excess of the heat generated by the bubble bursting; wherein said forming cycles energy input; and collecting the resulting heat.

7. A method according to Claim 6, wherein said acoustical means comprises a sonicator producing sound waves at a frequency of at least 10 KHZ and at an energy at said metal surface of at least 1 W/cm².

8. A method according to Claim 7, wherein said sonicator comprises a liquid reservoir at an elevated pressure, wherein said sonicator liquid reservoir and said liquid medium are separated by a thin metal plate.

9. A method according to Claim 7, wherein said liquid medium comprises deuterium oxide at an elevated pressure under an argon atmosphere.

10. A method according to Claim 7, wherein said metal surface is a metal of Group IV to VIII of the Periodic Chart.

11. A method according to Claim 10, wherein said metal is titanium.

12. A method according to Claim 6, wherein said temperature is at least about 10°C and said liquid medium is at an elevated pressure of at least about 2 atm.

13. A method according to Claim 6, wherein said liquid medium is maintained in an electromagnetic field as a result of a magnet or an electrical current in proximity to said liquid medium.

14. A method according to Claim 6, wherein said metal comprises deuterium prior to initiating bubble formation.

15. A method according to Claim 6, wherein said liquid medium comprises deuterium oxide, wherein said deuterium oxide has been degassed and repressurized with at least one gas selected from the group consisting of deuterium, argon and krypton.

16. A method for producing heat, said method comprising: forming by pulsed acoustical means ' high energy transient bubbles in a deuterium oxide at a temperature between about 10°C and 350°C at a pressure of at least 2 atm of a gas selected from the group consisting of deuterium and argon in the presence of a palladium or titanium metal surface, whereby said bubbles direct deuterium atoms at high energy into said metal surface with formation of heat in excess of the heat generated by the bubble bursting; and collecting the resulting heat.

17. A method for producing heat, said method comprising: forming high energy transient bubbles in a hydrogen isotope containing liquid medium at a temperature below about 350°C in the presence of a titanium surface, whereby said bubbles direct said hydrogen isotope at high energy into said metal surface with formation of heat in excess of the heat generated by the bubble bursting; and collecting the resulting heat.

18. An apparatus for producing heat, said apparatus comprising: a reaction vessel comprising an inlet and an outlet and opposed walls; a bubble collapsing metal surface in between said opposed walls, said metal surface capable of absorbing a hydrogen isotope; means for producing transient asymmetric high energy bubbles directed against said metal surface in a liquid medium, when said liquid medium is present in said reaction vessel, wherein energy is transferred through a continuous liquid medium to said metal surface; means for heat transfer from heat produced in said reaction vessel to a heat receiving means.

19. An apparatus according to Claim 18, wherein said bubbles producing means is a sonicator capable of producing sound waves at at least about 10 KHz to provide energy at said metal surface of at least about 1 W/cm².

20. An apparatus according to Claim 18, wherein said sonicator comprises means for pulsing said means for producing transient asymmetric high energy bubbles.

21. An apparatus according to Claim 18, wherein said metal surface is a metal of Groups IV to VIII of the Periodic Chart.

22. An apparatus according to Claim 18, wherein said heat transfer means comprises a circulation system which includes said continuous liquid medium and a heat exchanger positioned exterior to said reaction vessel.

23. An apparatus according to Claim 18, wherein said heat transfer means comprises a bimetallic thermo-electric means for converting heat into electrical energy.