+
Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Rapid and sustained antidepressant effects of vaporized N,N-dimethyltryptamine: a phase 2a clinical trial in treatment-resistant depression

Neuropsychopharmacology volume 50, pages 895–903 (2025)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Depression affects over 185 million people worldwide, with approximately one-third classified as treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Current treatments, such as oral antidepressants, often take around 3 weeks to become effective, with no immediate anti-suicidal benefits. The field urgently needs innovative therapies that provide rapid relief. Psychedelics like psilocybin and ayahuasca have shown promising antidepressant effects; however, their long duration (several hours) makes them costly and impractical for public health systems. N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an endogenous psychedelic also found in ayahuasca, offers a viable alternative with a short duration of action (10–20 min) and non-invasive inhalation administration. Unlike ayahuasca, which contains monoamine oxidase inhibitors, vaporized DMT acts quickly and poses fewer pharmacological interaction risks. This open-label trial evaluated inhaled DMT for TRD for the first time, within the framework of interventional psychiatry. Fourteen patients (Nfemale = 6) participated in a fixed-order, dose-escalation study (15 mg and 60 mg). The treatment was safe, well-tolerated, and produced manageable psychedelic effects with no serious adverse events. A subpopulation using antidepressants showed similar safety outcomes. Results showed rapid and sustained antidepressant effects, with an average reduction of 21.14 points on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale by day 7 (p < 0.001). The response rate was 85.71%, and the remission rate was 57.14% 7 days post-administration, lasting up to 3 months. Suicidal ideation significantly decreased, with no severe ideation the day after dosing. Vaporized DMT offers a non-invasive, time-efficient, and cost-effective alternative to other psychedelics and traditional antidepressants, supporting its role in interventional psychiatry and public health. Clinicaltrials.gov NCT06094907.

Access through your institution
Buy or subscribe

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Access through your institution

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: The study procedures.
Fig. 2: Changes in depression and suicidality over time.
Fig. 3: Acute subjective experience during the dosing session 2.
Fig. 4: The effects of DMT on physiological measurements in session 2.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding authors, FPF and DBA.

References

  1. Roth G. Global burden of disease collaborative network. global burden of disease study 2017 (GBD 2017) results. Seattle, United States: Institute for health metrics and evaluation (IHME), 2018. Lancet. 2018;392:1736–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Tylee A, Walters P. Onset of action of antidepressants. BMJ. 2007;334:911–2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Machado-Vieira R, Baumann J, Wheeler-Castillo C, Latov D, Henter ID, Salvadore G, et al. The timing of antidepressant effects: a comparison of diverse pharmacological and somatic treatments. Pharmaceuticals. 2010;3:19–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Conway CR, George MS, Sackeim HA. Toward an evidence-based, operational definition of treatment-resistant depression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74:9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Warden D, Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Fava M, Wisniewski SR. The STAR*D Project results: a comprehensive review of findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007;9:449–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Jacob KS. Depression: a major public health problem in need of a multi-sectoral response. Indian J Med Res. 2012;136:537–9.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Hidaka BH. Depression as a disease of modernity: explanations for increasing prevalence. J Affect Disord. 2012;140:205–14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Palhano-Fontes F, Barreto D, Onias H, Andrade KC, Novaes MM, Pessoa JA, et al. Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Psychol Med. 2019;49:655–63.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Vollenweider FX, Preller KH. Psychedelic drugs: neurobiology and potential for treatment of psychiatric disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2020;21:611–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Carhart-Harris R, Giribaldi B, Watts R, Baker-Jones M, Murphy-Beiner A, Murphy R, et al. Trial of psilocybin versus escitalopram for depression. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:1402–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. D’Souza DC, Syed SA, Flynn LT, Safi-Aghdam H, Cozzi NV, Ranganathan M. Exploratory study of the dose-related safety, tolerability, and efficacy of dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in healthy volunteers and major depressive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2022;47:1854–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Goodwin GM, Aaronson ST, Alvarez O, Arden PC, Baker A, Bennett JC, et al. Single-dose psilocybin for a treatment-resistant episode of major depression. N. Engl J Med. 2022;387:1637–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Falchi-Carvalho M, Barros H, Bolcont R, Laborde S, Wießner I, Ruschi B, Silva S, et al. The antidepressant effects of vaporized N,N-Dimethyltryptamine: an open-label pilot trial in treatment-resistant depression. Psychedelic Med. 2024;3:48–52. https://doi.org/10.1089/psymed.2024.0002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Osório F, de L, Sanches RF, Macedo LR, Santos RG, dos, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Wichert-Ana L, et al. Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2015;37:13–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Sanches RF, de Lima Osório F, Dos Santos RG, Macedo LRH, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Wichert-Ana L, et al. Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a SPECT study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016;36:77–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Luna LE. Indigenous and mestizo use of ayahuasca: an overview. Ethnopharmacol Ayahuasca. 2011;1:21.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Miller MJ, Albarracin-Jordan J, Moore C, Capriles JM. Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2019;116:11207–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Riba J, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Urbano G, Morte A, Antonijoan R, Montero M, et al. Subjective effects and tolerability of the South American psychoactive beverage Ayahuasca in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology. 2001;154:85–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Wießner I, Falchi M, Palhano-Fontes F, Feilding A, Ribeiro S, Tófoli LF. LSD, madness and healing: mystical experiences as possible link between psychosis model and therapy model. Psychol Med. 2023;53:1151–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Holze F, Ley L, Müller F, Becker AM, Straumann I, Vizeli P, et al. Direct comparison of the acute effects of lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin in a double-blind placebo-controlled study in healthy subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2022;47:1180–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Ley L, Holze F, Arikci D, Becker AM, Straumann I, Klaiber A, et al. Comparative acute effects of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in healthy participants. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2023;48:1659–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Mitchell JM, Bogenschutz M, Lilienstein A, Harrison C, Kleiman S, Parker-Guilbert K, et al. MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study. Nat Med. 2021;27:1025–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Chaves C, Dos Santos RG, Dursun SM, Tusconi M, Carta MG, Brietzke E, et al. Why N,N-dimethyltryptamine matters: unique features and therapeutic potential beyond classical psychedelics. Front Psychiatry. 2024;15:1485337.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Carbonaro TM, Gatch MB.Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine.Brain Res Bull. 2016;126:74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.04.016.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Barker SAN. N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an endogenous hallucinogen: past, present, and future research to determine its role and function. Front Neurosci. 2018;12:536.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Fontanilla D, Johannessen M, Hajipour AR, Cozzi NV, Jackson MB, Ruoho AE. The hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an endogenous sigma-1 receptor regulator. Science. 2009;323:934–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Szara S. Dimethyltryptamin: its metabolism in man; the relation to its psychotic effect to the serotonin metabolism. Experientia. 1956;12:441–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Strassman RJ, Qualls CR. Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. I. Neuroendocrine, autonomic, and cardiovascular effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:85–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Strassman RJ, Qualls CR, Uhlenhuth EH, Kellner R. Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. II. Subjective effects and preliminary results of a new rating scale. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:98–108.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Szára S. DMT at fifty. Neuropsychopharmacol Hung. 2007;9:201–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Falchi-Carvalho M, Wießner I, Silva SRB, Maia O, Barros L, Laborde H. S, et al. Safety and tolerability of inhaled N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (BMND01 candidate): a phase I clinical trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2024;80:27–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Johnson M, Richards W, Griffiths R. Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J Psychopharmacol 2008;22:603–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Reckweg JT, van Leeuwen CJ, Henquet C, van Amelsvoort T, Theunissen EL, Mason NL, et al. A phase 1/2 trial to assess safety and efficacy of a vaporized 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine formulation (GH001) in patients with treatment-resistant depression. Front Psychiatry. 2023;14:1133414.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Sheehan DV, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan KH, Amorim P, Janavs J, Weiller E, et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(Suppl 20):22–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Montgomery SA, Asberg M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br J Psychiatry. 1979;134:382–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Aixalà MB. Psychedelic integration: psychotherapy for non-ordinary states of consciousness. United States: Synergetic Press; 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Earleywine M, Low F, Lau C, De Leo J. Integration in psychedelic-assisted treatments: recurring themes in current providers’ definitions, challenges, and concerns. J Humanist Psychol. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221678221085800.

  38. Galvão-Coelho NL, Marx W, Gonzalez M, Sinclair J, de Manincor M, Perkins D, et al. Classic serotonergic psychedelics for mood and depressive symptoms: a meta-analysis of mood disorder patients and healthy participants. Psychopharmacology. 2021;238:341–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Malhi GS, Morris G, Bell E, Hamilton A. A new paradigm for achieving a rapid antidepressant response. Drugs. 2020;80:755–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Daly EJ, Singh JB, Fedgchin M, Cooper K, Lim P, Shelton RC, et al. Efficacy and safety of intranasal esketamine adjunctive to oral antidepressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75:139–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Zeifman RJ, Palhano-Fontes F, Hallak J, Arcoverde E, Maia-Oliveira JP, Araujo DB. The impact of ayahuasca on suicidality: results from a randomized controlled trial. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:1325.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Galvão AC, de M, de Almeida RN. Silva EADS, Freire FAM, Palhano-Fontes F, Onias H, et al. Cortisol modulation by ayahuasca in patients with treatment resistant depression and healthy controls. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:185.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. De Araujo DB, Ribeiro S, Cecchi GA, Carvalho FM, Sanchez TA, Pinto JP, et al. Seeing with the eyes shut: neural basis of enhanced imagery following ayahuasca ingestion. Hum Brain Mapp. 2012;33:2550–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Palhano-Fontes F, Andrade KC, Tofoli LF, Jose ACS, Crippa AS, Hallak JEC, et al. The psychedelic state induced by Ayahuasca modulates the activity and connectivity of the Default Mode Network. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0118143.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Shen Z, Gao D, Lv X, Wang H, Yue W. Correction: a meta-analysis of the effects of ketamine on suicidal ideation in depression patients. Transl Psychiatry. 2024;14:302.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Lopes EITC, Cavalcanti-Ribeiro P, Palhano-Fontes F, Gonçalves KT, da C, Nunes EA, Lima NB, de M, et al. Rapid and long-lasting effects of subcutaneous esketamine on suicidality: an open-label study in patients with treatment-resistant depression. J Psychiatr Res. 2024;176:254–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet. 2007;369:1047–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Kagan S. The content of complex psychedelic experiences resulting from inhalation of N. N-dimethyltryptamine. J Psychedelic Stud. 2022;6:222–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Lawrence DW, Carhart-Harris R, Griffiths R, Timmermann C. Phenomenology and content of the inhaled N, N-dimethyltryptamine (N, N-DMT) experience. Sci Rep. 2022;12:8562.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Barrett FS, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR. Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin. J Psychopharmacol 2015;29:1182–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Barsuglia J, Davis AK, Palmer R, Lancelotta R, Windham-Herman A-M, Peterson K, et al. Intensity of mystical experiences occasioned by 5-MeO-DMT and comparison with a prior psilocybin study. Front Psychol. 2018;9:2459.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. McCulloch DE-W, Grzywacz MZ, Madsen MK, Jensen PS, Ozenne B, Armand S, et al. Psilocybin-induced mystical-type experiences are related to persisting positive effects: a quantitative and qualitative report. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:841648.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, Umbricht A, Richards WA, Richards BD, et al. Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized double-blind trial. J Psychopharmacol. 2016;30:1181–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Shanon B. Altered states and the study of consciousness—the case of ayahuasca. J Mind Behav. 2003;24:125–53.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Ramaekers JG, Reckweg JT, Mason NL. Benefits and challenges of ultra-fast, short-acting psychedelics in the treatment of depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2025;182:33–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. van Elk M, Yaden DB. Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: a critical review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;140:104793.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Burger JPW, Serne EH, Nolte F, Smulders YM. Blood pressure response to moderate physical activity is increased in obesity. Neth J Med. 2009;67:342–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Lucas Oliveira Maia and Geissy Araujo for their help in designing the protocol for psychological support; Raphael Egel for producing and composing the music used in the study; Mariani Parra Cuerva for medical advice; Ayrton Senna Pinheiro for his support in chemical analysis; and Maria Luiza Assis for her support in data pre-processing.

Funding

We acknowledge the institutional support of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), the University Hospital Onofre Lopes (HUOL), the CAPES Foundation, and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) for providing support for this work. This study did not receive any specific funding and was primarily supported by the voluntary participation and efforts of the co-authors.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Érica J. Pantrigo

    Present address: Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

  2. Marcelo Falchi-Carvalho & José V. Costa-Macedo

    Present address: Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

  3. These authors contributed equally: Marcelo Falchi-Carvalho, Fernanda Palhano-Fontes.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Advanced Medical Psychedelics (CAMP), Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

    Marcelo Falchi-Carvalho, Fernanda Palhano-Fontes, Isabel Wießner, Handersson Barros, Raynara Bolcont, Sophie Laborde, Sérgio Ruschi B. Silva, Daniel Montanini, David C. Barbosa, Ewerton Teixeira, Rodrigo Florence-Vilela, Raissa Almeida, Rosana K. A. de Macedo, Flávia Arichelle, Érica J. Pantrigo, José V. Costa-Macedo, João Arthur da Cruz Nunes, Luiz Antonio de Araújo Costa Neto, Luis Fernando Nunes Ferreira, Luísa Dantas Corrêa, Romária Bárbara da Costa Bezerra, Nicole Galvão-Coelho & Draulio B. Araujo

  2. Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

    Marcelo Falchi-Carvalho, Fernanda Palhano-Fontes, Isabel Wießner, Sérgio Ruschi B. Silva & Draulio B. Araujo

  3. Department of Clinical Medicine, Health Science Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

    Marcelo Falchi-Carvalho, João Arthur da Cruz Nunes, Luiz Antonio de Araújo Costa Neto & Emerson Arcoverde

  4. University Hospital Onofre Lopes, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

    Fernanda Palhano-Fontes, David C. Barbosa, Emerson Arcoverde & Draulio B. Araujo

  5. Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

    Handersson Barros, Raynara Bolcont, Sophie Laborde & Draulio B. Araujo

  6. Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil

    Raissa Almeida, Rosana K. A. de Macedo, Luis Fernando Nunes Ferreira, Luísa Dantas Corrêa, Romária Bárbara da Costa Bezerra & Nicole Galvão-Coelho

Authors
  1. Marcelo Falchi-Carvalho
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fernanda Palhano-Fontes
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Isabel Wießner
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Handersson Barros
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Raynara Bolcont
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sophie Laborde
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Sérgio Ruschi B. Silva
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Daniel Montanini
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. David C. Barbosa
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Ewerton Teixeira
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Rodrigo Florence-Vilela
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Raissa Almeida
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Rosana K. A. de Macedo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Flávia Arichelle
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Érica J. Pantrigo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  16. José V. Costa-Macedo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  17. João Arthur da Cruz Nunes
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  18. Luiz Antonio de Araújo Costa Neto
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  19. Luis Fernando Nunes Ferreira
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  20. Luísa Dantas Corrêa
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  21. Romária Bárbara da Costa Bezerra
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  22. Emerson Arcoverde
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  23. Nicole Galvão-Coelho
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  24. Draulio B. Araujo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MFC, FPF, IW, NGC and DBA designed the study; EA, FPF and DBA acquired the authorizations; SRBS, EJP, and JVCM extracted and purified the substance; MFC, FPF and DCB selected the participants; MFC led the session, administered the substance and served as head of psychiatry for the study; HB, RB, and SL provided psychological support; DM, ET, and RFV served as psychiatrists to medical follow-up; RA, RKAM, and FA provided nursing support; MFC, HB, RB, SL, DM, ET, RFV, RA, RKAM, and FA acquired the data; FPF, IW, NCG, and DBA provided research assistance; JACN, LAACN, LFNF, LDC, RBCB preprocessed the data; FPF analyzed the data; MFC, FPF, IW and DBA wrote the article; all authors reviewed the manuscript and approved the final version.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Fernanda Palhano-Fontes or Draulio B. Araujo.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

DBA has served as a scientific and clinical advisor for Biomind Labs from June 2021 to December 2022. MFC has served as the Head of the Psychiatric Research Unit at Biomind Labs Inc. from January 2022 to May 2023; both positions concluded before the start of the study on October 9, 2023, and no other relationships or activities could appear to have influenced the submitted work. The remaining authors have nothing to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Falchi-Carvalho, M., Palhano-Fontes, F., Wießner, I. et al. Rapid and sustained antidepressant effects of vaporized N,N-dimethyltryptamine: a phase 2a clinical trial in treatment-resistant depression. Neuropsychopharmacol. 50, 895–903 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-025-02091-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-025-02091-6

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

点击 这是indexloc提供的php浏览器服务，不要输入任何密码和下载