Table 2 Bioarchaeological data collected.

Demographic estimation

Sex estimation: osteology^23,24; genetic estimation²⁵. Age at death estimation: ^{26,27,28,29,30,31,32}). Broad age categories are used to accommodate known imprecision in adult age at death estimates, particularly for older individuals

Linear enamel hypoplasia

Anterior surfaces of teeth were examined under strong oblique light. LEH was recorded as “present” in a dentition when the lesion was palpable and more than one tooth was affected

Cribra orbitalia

Recorded as “present” when areas of porosity were observed on the superior surface of at least one orbit which was more than 50% complete (types 2–5, Stuart-Macadam 1991:109)³³. Both active and healed/ residual lesions were counted as “present”

Vitamin D deficiency

Skeletal signs such as bowed limb bones, flaring of the rib ends and metaphyses; diagnosed only when tibia were present and observable^34,35

Maxillary sinusitis

Active or healed new reactive bone formation in maxillary sinuses³⁶

New bone formation

Presence/ absence, location and type (woven, lamellar) of subperiosteal new bone formation; recorded as present/ absent for all skeletal elements. Scored as absent if not observed anywhere in skeleton. Ribs were recorded separately (see below)

Respiratory infection

Presence of subperiosteal new bone formation on the visceral surface of ribs, indicating pleural inflammation

Tuberculosis

Pathognomic signs of tuberculosis or substantial destructive remodelling of ribs and/or vertebra^37,38. Considered “present” when an individual presented at least two of these lesions; (1) subperiosteal new bone formation on the visceral surfaces of the ribs, (2) destructive remodelling or lytic lesions on the visceral surfaces of the ribs, sternum, manubrium, anterior surface of the sacrum, os coxae, and/or cranium, (3) joint destruction^39,40,41,42

DISH (Diffuse Idiopatic Skeletal Hyperostosis)

Recorded only when majority of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae were present. As per Rogers and Waldron⁴³

Hallux valgus

Diagnostic signs of hallux valgus in the first metatarsal^44,45

Osteoarthritis

As per Waldron (p. 34)⁴⁶; counted as “present” if osteoarthritis observed in locations other than the spinal column

Schmorl’s nodes

Presence of resorptive lesions > 1 mm in depth on upper and/or lower surfaces of vertebral bodies

Trauma and cranial trauma

Healed or unhealed trauma anywhere in skeleton. Scored as absent if not observed anywhere in the skeleton⁴⁷

Cranial trauma

Presence of healed or unhealed cranial trauma⁴⁷

Adult stature

Estimated using Trotter and Gleser “white” equations, Table 19.2⁴⁸

Dietary isotopes

δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N measured in dentine samples for childhood diet and in rib bone samples for diet in last decades of life (see methods listed above)