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Geography as a Spatial Science
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A Place for Geography? 1
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Questions on geography
… , knowledge and power: Foucault and geography, 2007
Your work to a large extent intersects with, and provides material for, our reflections about geography and more generally about ideologies and strategies of space. Our questioning of geography brought us into contact with a certain number of concepts you have used-knowledge (savoir), power, science, discursive formation, gaze, episteme-and your archaeology has helped give a direction to our reflection. For instance the hypothesis you put forward in The Archaeology of Knowledge-that a discursive formation is defined neither in terms of a particular object, nor a style, nor a play of permanent concepts, nor by the persistence of a thematic, but must be grasped in the form of a system of regular dispersion of statements-enabled us to form a clearer outline of geographical discourse. Consequently we were surprised by your silence about geography. (If we are not mistaken, you mention its existence only once in a paper about Cuvier, and then only to number it among the natural sciences.) Yet, paradoxically, we would have been astounded if you had taken account of geography since, despite the example of Kant and Hegel, philosophers know nothing about geography. Should we blame for this the geographers who, ever since Vidal de la Blache, have been careful to shut themselves off under the cover of the human sciences from any contact with Marxism, epistemology or the history of the sciences? Or should we blame the philosophers, put off by a discipline which is unclassifiable, 'displaced', straddling the gulf between the natural and the social sciences? Is there a 'place' for geography in your archaeology of knowledge? Doesn't archaeology here reproduce the division between the sciences of nature (the inquiry and the table) and the human sciences (examination, discipline), and thereby dissolve the site where geography could be located?
Geospatial Perspective
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Geography as a Spatial Science
Suman Deka,
Department of Geography, Gauhati University
Email. sdeka581@gmail.com
Introduction:
Geography is one of the oldest fields of knowledge, yet it continues to evolve with time and
technology. Traditionally, geography was viewed as a descriptive discipline that studied
different regions of the Earth. However, during the twentieth century, geography began to
adopt a more scientific and analytical approach, focusing on the spatial relationships between
physical and human phenomena. This shift gave rise to the concept of geography as a
spatial science, emphasizing the study of where things are located on the Earth’s surface,
why they are located there, and how they are related in space.
The term spatial science highlights geography’s unique character as a discipline concerned
with spatial patterns, processes, and interactions. Unlike other sciences that focus primarily
on specific subjects (such as economics on production or biology on life), geography’s
essence lies in its spatial perspective. It seeks to understand the organization, distribution, and
interconnection of phenomena across the Earth’s surface.
Meaning of Spatial Science:
The word spatial refers to space—specifically, the arrangement and distribution of objects or
phenomena across the Earth. Therefore, geography as a spatial science means studying the
spatial organization of the natural and human environment.
Geographers analyze spatial data to understand patterns such as population distribution,
transportation networks, climatic zones, vegetation cover, or settlement structures. Through
such analysis, geography seeks to identify regularities, relationships, and causes behind
spatial variations.
For example:
● Why do major cities often develop near rivers or coasts?
● Why are deserts found mostly around the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn?
● Why does economic activity tend to concentrate in certain regions while others
remain underdeveloped?
These questions are inherently spatial in nature, focusing on location, distribution,
interaction, and organization.
Historical Development of the Spatial Perspective:
● Early Descriptive Phase:
Before the twentieth century, geography was largely regional and descriptive, focusing on
compiling information about different areas of the world. Scholars like Humboldt, Ritter, and
Vidal de la Blache contributed significantly to the understanding of the relationship between
humans and their environments. However, their focus was mainly on describing regions
rather than identifying spatial laws or patterns.
● The Quantitative Revolution:
In the 1950s and 1960s, geography underwent a major transformation known as the
Quantitative Revolution. During this period, geographers began using mathematical,
statistical, and computational methods to analyze spatial phenomena.
One of the most influential figures in this movement was Fred K. Schaefer (1953), who
argued that geography should be viewed as a “science concerned with the formulation of laws
governing the spatial distribution of certain features on the Earth’s surface.”
This statement marked a significant shift from descriptive regional geography to scientific
spatial analysis. Geography was no longer just about describing places; it became about
understanding the spatial relationships and processes that shape those places.
●
Spatial Analysis and Models:
Following Schaefer, scholars such as Peter Haggett, Richard Chorley, William Bunge, and
Brian Berry developed theories and models to explain spatial patterns.
Haggett’s “Locational Analysis” (1965) emphasized the study of spatial organization and
the search for spatial laws.
Chorley and Haggett (1967) introduced systems theory in geography, linking spatial
patterns with dynamic processes.
William Bunge (1962) highlighted the scientific nature of geography through spatial
models and quantitative methods.
These contributions consolidated geography’s identity as a spatial science—a discipline that
explains spatial regularities and structures using scientific tools.
Core Concepts of Spatial Science:
1. Location:
The precise or relative position of a feature on Earth’s surface (e.g., latitude and longitude).
Example: The spatial location of industries near raw materials or markets.
2. Distribution:
The pattern of how phenomena are spread out or clustered in space.
Example: Population density in urban vs. rural areas.
3. Distance:
A fundamental spatial concept that affects interaction, accessibility, and connectivity between
places.
4. Direction:
The orientation of spatial relationships, such as trade flows from north to south or migration
trends.
5. Spatial Interaction:
The flow of goods, people, ideas, or information between places.
Example: Commuting patterns, internet networks, or airline routes.
6. Region:
An area with common characteristics or functional relationships.
Example: The agricultural regions of India or the industrial regions of Europe.
7. Spatial Organization:
The structure and arrangement of spatial elements into patterns such as networks, hierarchies,
or systems.
Tools and Techniques in Spatial Science:
The scientific study of space relies heavily on technological tools for data collection,
analysis, and visualization:
Cartography: Maps remain the fundamental tool for spatial representation.
Remote Sensing (RS): Satellite imagery helps in mapping land use, vegetation, and
environmental changes.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Integrates spatial and attribute data for advanced
spatial analysis.
Global Positioning System (GPS): Provides accurate location data for navigation and
mapping.
Spatial Statistics and Modelling: Used to analyze patterns such as spatial autocorrelation,
clustering, and diffusion.
Through these techniques, geography has become increasingly precise, objective, and
analytical—hallmarks of a true spatial science.
Application of Spatial Science:
The spatial perspective has wide-ranging applications across both physical and human
geography.
a. Physical Geography:
Climatology: Mapping temperature, rainfall, and wind patterns helps identify climatic zones.
Geomorphology: Spatial analysis of landforms helps in understanding erosion, sedimentation,
and tectonic processes.
Biogeography: Studies spatial distribution of flora and fauna and their ecological interactions.
Hydrology: Examines spatial patterns of rivers, groundwater, and drainage basins.
b. Human Geography:
Population Studies: Analysis of population density, migration, and settlement patterns.
Economic Geography: Spatial distribution of industries, agriculture, and trade networks.
Urban Geography: Studies spatial organization of cities, land-use zoning, and transport
systems.
Political Geography: Examines spatial dimensions of territories, boundaries, and geopolitical
relationships.
Cultural Geography: Investigates how culture spreads and interacts spatially across regions.
c. Applied Geography:
The spatial approach supports decision-making in planning and policy:
Urban and regional planning
Disaster management and risk mapping
Transportation planning
Environmental management and sustainability analysis
Resource allocation and land-use planning
For example, GIS is used to map flood-prone zones, monitor deforestation, and plan smart
cities.
Models and Theories Supporting Spatial Science:
Several models have been developed to explain spatial organization in geography:
1. Von Thünen’s Model (1826):
Explains agricultural land use around a central market based on transportation cost and
distance.
2. Weber’s Industrial Location Theory (1909):
Analyzes industrial location based on minimizing transport, labor, and agglomeration costs.
3. Christaller’s Central Place Theory (1933):
Describes the spatial hierarchy of settlements and market areas.
4. Gravity Model:
Explains spatial interaction between two places based on size (mass) and distance.
5. Hägerstrand’s Diffusion Model (1953):
Studies the spatial spread of innovations, ideas, or diseases through time and space.
All these models emphasize that geographical phenomena can be analyzed scientifically
through spatial relationships, thereby reinforcing geography’s position as a spatial science.
Geography’s Relationship with Other Spatial Sciences:
Geography overlaps with several other spatially oriented disciplines:
Economics: Spatial economics and regional development.
Sociology: Spatial distribution of social structures and inequalities.
Political Science: Spatial analysis of electoral patterns and boundaries.
Environmental Science: Spatial assessment of pollution and resource distribution.
However, what makes geography distinct is its integrative spatial perspective, connecting
natural and human dimensions in a holistic manner.
Fig: Geography’s Relationship with Other Spatial Sciences
Criticism of the Spatial Science Approach:
While the spatial science approach brought rigor and objectivity, it also faced criticism:
1. Neglect of Human Values:
The quantitative focus sometimes ignored cultural, emotional, and perceptual aspects of
human life.
2. Overemphasis on Models:
Many spatial models assumed uniform space and rational behavior, which rarely exist in
reality.
3. Reductionism:
Critics argued that spatial science oversimplified complex social and environmental
processes.
4. Lack of Regional Context:
The emphasis on general laws sometimes overlooked the uniqueness of regions.
In response, humanistic, behavioral, and critical geographies emerged in the 1970s and
1980s, focusing on perception, experience, and power relations. Yet, the spatial perspective
remains fundamental, even within these newer approaches.
Contemporary Trends:
Today, geography continues to be a spatial science but with expanded tools and inclusive
perspectives:
GIScience (Geographic Information Science) combines computer science, data analysis, and
geography.
Big Data and Spatial Analytics help analyze urban growth, traffic patterns, and
environmental change in real time.
Remote sensing enables global monitoring of climate, vegetation, and land-use change.
Sustainability science integrates spatial thinking to address global challenges such as climate
change and urbanization.
Thus, the modern spatial science approach blends quantitative precision with qualitative
understanding, reaffirming geography’s central role in solving real-world problems.
Conclusion:
Geography as a spatial science provides a systematic framework to understand the world’s
physical and human environments through their spatial relationships. It is not confined to
describing places but seeks to explain why things are where they are and how they interact
across space.
From Schaefer’s vision of a law-seeking science to the sophisticated GIS-based analyses of
today, geography’s evolution as a spatial science has transformed it into an integrative,
analytical, and policy-relevant discipline.
By combining spatial theory, technological tools, and interdisciplinary insights, geography
continues to illuminate the spatial dimension of human and natural processes—making it one
of the most vital sciences for understanding our complex and interconnected world.
Bibliography:
1. Schaefer, F. K. (1953). Exceptionalism in Geography: A Methodological Examination.
Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 43(3), 226–249.
2. Haggett, Peter. (1965). Locational Analysis in Human Geography. London: Edward
Arnold.
3. Chorley, R. J. & Haggett, P. (1967). Models in Geography. London: Methuen & Co.
4. Bunge, William. (1962). Theoretical Geography. Lund Studies in Geography, Series C,
No.1. Lund, Sweden: Gleerup.
5. Harvey, David. (1969). Explanation in Geography. London: Edward Arnold.
6. Berry, Brian J. L. & Marble, Duane F. (1968). Spatial Analysis: A Reader in Statistical
Geography. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
7. Hägerstrand, Torsten. (1953). Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press (translation 1967).
8. Johnston, R. J., Gregory, D., Pratt, G., & Watts, M. (Eds.) (2000). The Dictionary of
Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell.
9. Goodchild, Michael F. (2004). GIScience, Geography, Form, and Process. Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, 94(4), 709–714.
10. Abler, Ronald, Adams, John S., & Gould, Peter. (1971). Spatial Organization: The
Geographer’s View of the World. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
11. Johnston, R. J. (1979). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human
Geography Since 1945. London: Edward Arnold.
12. Harvey, David. (1973). Social Justice and the City. London: Edward Arnold.
13. Haggett, Peter. (2001). Geography: A Global Synthesis. Harlow: Pearson Education.
14. Cresswell, Tim. (2013). Geographic Thought: A Critical Introduction. Oxford:
Wiley-Blackwell.
15. de Blij, H. J. & Murphy, Alexander B. (2006). Human Geography: People, Place, and
Culture. New York: Wiley.
16. Martin, Ronald L. & Sunley, Peter. (2011). The Place of Spatial Science in Geography.
Progress in Human Geography, 35(5), 652–672.
17. Goodchild, M. F., & Janelle, D. G. (Eds.) (2004). Spatially Integrated Social Science.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.